


msc Z 
r J|t7li|ifCUr 

taiEsrjliy 


WJthk 

• - * 



, *'7C -7^ 

L— 



• • * - • * V“f r »*4 

:vii ’-.'-vl 









» * • 4 *--T~, ■ » 
V,ViA ,* 

•'«»* •* 


\ 1 t*tLv UtVV;’! 






>*•*■ * * f r -« f *' f 




- \ , *? 



: ;;r . 


\0* 



• *»’*■*> ’< 'i ♦ • *• 

' » • # tr■ - » ' »V* » ». 

• • • * • > i< » ■<' 







lUfcWil 





















































































































Book » o 3-_ 

Copyright N°.__._ 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




















THE AUTOMOBILE 
OWNER’S GUIDE 








THE AUTOMOBILE 
OWNER’S GUIDE 


BY 

FRANK B. SCHOLL 

I* 



D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 

NEW YORK * LONDON 


1920 












COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY 

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 



JUL -9 Ib20 



PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA 


©CU570579 


PREFACE 


The automobile lias taken its place as one of the most suc¬ 
cessful and useful inventions of the day. It is equaled only 
by the internal combustion gas engine, which is a factor in 
making it practical and efficient. 

Gasoline-propelled vehicles have become one of man’s great¬ 
est aids in business efficiency, but nevertheless it is very im¬ 
portant that we consider the facts, that the adoption of the 
automobile by man for business, commerce and pleasure is 
on a very large scale, and that the production by manufac¬ 
turers is so great that very little thought is given to proper 
care, which is an ever-present factor in economical operation 
and a fair return for the investment. 

The purpose of this book is to serve as a practical guide for 
those who own, operate, or contemplate purchasing an auto¬ 
mobile. 

The contents of this book cover the entire field that would 
be of value to the owner or chauffeur in making his own re¬ 
pairs. The parts and expressions are given in their sim¬ 
plest form; technical terms, tables and scales have been en¬ 
tirely eliminated, as they mean little or nothing to the average 
owner, and are of value only to the mechanical engineer and 
draftsman. 

The illustrations, drawings and diagrams are intended only 
for the purpose of bringing out points that are more readily 
understood and explained in this manner. No attempt has 
been made to conform to proportionate exactness or scale ac¬ 
curateness. 

Since there are many different makes of cars, motors, and 
equipment, the functional action of all is practically the same, 
therefore we use for illustration only those which are used by 
the majority of manufacturers. 


VI 


PREFACE 


While, as a general rule, you will find all automobiles effi¬ 
cient and reliable, troubles and conditions are bound to arise 
that are somewhat puzzling; therefore, to assist the owner, 
we have written a chapter on trouble hints conveniently ar¬ 
ranged in three columns, headed troubles, cause, and remedy. 

The entire book is worked out along such lines, and so 
arranged, that a man or a boy with a common school educa¬ 
tion can easily master it and become an efficient mechanic. 


INTRODUCTION 


After twelve years’ experience with the automobile, I find 
that only one-third of the present-day owners understand the 
mechanical operation, care and proper upkeep of their cars; 
the other two-thirds know little or nothing of their cars, and 
are unable to locate or detect trouble, or make the slightest 
adjustment necessary to remedy it. This fact remains as the ' 
chief cause of the present high depreciation in cars, and the 
loss of millions of dollars annually to automobile owners. 

After two years of observation and close investigation, I 
find the vast majority of the present owners are eager to ac¬ 
quire mechanical knowledge, but they have not accomplished 
their aim, chiefly because the available books to attain that 
end are too technical, dry, and overdescriptive for the average 
owner and beginner in mechanics. 

The automobile is not an individually constructed piece of 
machinery, but a combination of individual inventions, each 
adapted to a functional purpose, which is necessary to the 
harmony of successful operation. A great many of these 
mechanical achievements are of delicate construction, and very 
apt to get out of adjustment. This, however, is not always 
the case, as grease, dirt and foreign matter with which the 
various parts come in contact often prevent them from operat¬ 
ing properly. 

Therefore a little common knowledge of operation and a 
little care will enable an owner to operate his car successfully, 
thereby avoiding unnecessary trouble, damage and expense. 

One of the chief aims of the writer is to make this book 
interesting and thorough, in order to hold the reader until 
he understands the entire contents, after which he should be 
able to make any necessary repairs and adjustments, or to 
hold a position as automobile mechanic. 


Vll 


INTRODUCTION 


• • • 
vm 

In order to accomplish the foregoing and prevent a stu¬ 
dent from becoming discouraged we use functional principle 
as the base for explanation whenever possible. 

The instructions set forth in this book are not taken merely 
from theory, but have been put into successful operation by 
the writer, who for several years sold cars in outlying dis¬ 
tricts where garage facilities were limited, and where it was 
necessary to make a mechanic of every purchaser in order 
to sustain the high reputation of the car sold. Later on his 
plan of instructions was used in an automobile school where 
he was chief instructor, and still later they were developed 
into a note system which he used in establishing an automobile 
school in the city of Toledo, Ohio. 

The students turned out by this school Were very efficient 
and successful, and finished the course in less than one-half 
the time usually required for the average automobile course. 

This book was written during the twenty months that the 
writer spent in the U. S. Army, from the note system used 
in his automobile school. 


F. B. S. 


CONTENTS 


Preface 

Introduction 


pagh 

v 

vii 


INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 

History of the Gasoline Engine and Early Automobile 


Construction.1 

Purchasing a new car. 3 

Purchasing a used car. 4 

Selecting and testing a used car. 5 

Driving instructions. 6 

Road rules for city and country. 9 

What to do in case of accident. 10 


CHAPTER I. 

Gasoline Engine Construction, and Parts .12 

The engine block castings, cylinders, pistons, connecting 
rods, bearings, crank shaft, cam shaft and fly-wheel. 

CHAPTER II. 

Valve Construction and Operation .21 

Valve construction. Types and operation of the valves in 
an 8 -cylinder V-type engine. Valve locations and valve 
grinding. Valve care. 

CHAPTER III. 

The Operation of a 4-Cycle 4-Cylindered Gasoline Engine 29 

Explaining the cycle. The 4-, 6 -, 8 -, 12-cylindered engine 
—The Knight sleeve valve engine—S. A. E. Horse Power 
Scale—Displacement—Engine charts—Lubrication oils 
and greases—Lubrication systems—Care—Cleaning—and 
adjusting of lubrication systems. 

ix 












X 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER IV. 

Brief Treatise on Carburetion. 

The Stromberg plain tube Model M carburetor. Princi¬ 
ple of action—Installation—Adjustment and mainte¬ 
nance—Stromberg Model L adjustment. 

CHAPTER V. 

Nitro Sunderman Carburetor. 

Principle of action, action of venturi, adjustment and 
general care. 

The Schebler Model R carburetor, action and adjustment 
points. 


CHAPTER VI. 

Stewart Carburetor. 

Principle of operation—Adjustment and maintenance. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Carter Carburetor. 

Operating principle—Adjustment and care. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Schebler Plain Tube Carburetor. 

Operation—Instructions for installing, adjustment and 
maintenance. 


CHAPTER IX. 

Kerosene Carburetors .. 

Operating principle—Installation and adjustment. 

CHAPTER X. 

Heated Manifolds and Hot Spots . . 

Action—Advantage and design. 


CHAPTER XI. 

Cooling Systems. 

Purpose of cooling system—Circulating systems—The 
force pump circulating system—Overheating—Radiator 
cleaning—Freezing—Freezing solutions—Radiator repair¬ 
ing—The air cooling system. 


PAGE 

45 


60 


65 


70 


72 


76 


79 


82 










CONTENTS 


XI 


CHAPTER XII. page 

Muffler Construction.86 

Purpose—Advantage—Type—Assembly and Maintenance. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Vacuum Systems.89 


Operating principle—Purpose of the air vent—Failure to 
feed gasoline to carburetor—Removing top—Cleaning 
gasoline strainer screen—Operating principle and general 
maintenance. 


CHAPTER XIV. 

Electrical Dictionary of Parts, Units and Terms . . 95 

Voltage — Amperage — Ohms — Current — Circuit — 

Low Tension Current—High Tension Current—Induction 
Coil—Commutator—Insulation—Shunt or choking coil— 
Fuse—Condenser—Dynamo—Voltaic cell—Accumulator 
—Storage battery—Electrolyte—Hydrometer—Ammeter 
—Circuit breaker—Switch—Generator—Regulator—Con¬ 
tact-breaker—Non-vibrating coil—Distributors. 

CHAPTER XV. 


The Magneto.101 

Parts—Assemblage—Operating principle. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

Bosch High Tension Magneto, Type ZR.105 

Operating principle—Primary or low tension circuit— 
Secondary or high tension circuit—Timing magneto gears 
—Timing magneto with engine—The condenser—Safety 
spark gap—Interrupter timing range—Cutting out igni¬ 
tion—Caution—Care—Maintenance. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Magneto Washing, Repairing and Timing .Ill 

Magneto cleaning—Magneto repairing—Magneto assem¬ 
bling—Magneto timing to engine. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

North East Ignition System. 114 

Wiring ignition distributor—Ingnition coil—Breaker box 
and distributor head assembly—Condenser—Breaker con¬ 
tacts—Breaker cam—Distributor head—Automatic spark 
advance mechanism—Manual spark control—Timing the 
distributor—General care. 








CONTENTS 


xii 


CHAPTER XIX. PAGE 

Atwater Kent Ignition Systems. 

Type CC system—Operating principle—Setting or timing 
—Adjustment—Oiling—General care. 

CHAPTER XX. 

Atwater Kent Battery Ignition System. 132 

Type K-2—Operating principle—Operation of contact 
maker—Contactless distributor—Wiring diagram of cur¬ 
rent flowage—Setting and timing the unisparker—Tim¬ 
ing with engine—Automatic spark advance—Contact 
point adjustment—Oiling diagram—Condenser—Testing 
for ignition trouble. 

CHAPTER XXI. 

Philbrin Single Spark, and High Frequency Duplex Ig¬ 
nition Systems. 141 

Operation of contact maker—Current induction—Duplex 
system—Duplex switch—Duplex switch action—Wiring 
diagram—Adjustment of contact points—General care. 


CHAPTER XXII. 

Electrical Starting and Lighting Systems.147 

The generator—The regulator—The automatic cut-out— 

One unit system—Two unit system—Three unit system 
—The starting motor—Lubrication—Maintenance. 


CHAPTER XXIII. 

Electric Lighting and Starting Systems.154 

Wiring diagram Bijur system—Operation of Bijur sys¬ 
tem—Starting motor—Operation of starting motor— 
Wiring circuits—Fuse—Ground fuse—Lamp controller— 
Oiling—Battery testing—General care. 


CHAPTER XXIV. 

North East Starter Used on Dodge Brothers’ Cars . . 161 

Model G starter-generator operation—Wiring diagram— 
Starter-generator action—Mounting—Drive—Charging 
rate adjustment — Fuse — Locating trouble — Starting 
switch and reverse current cut-out—Running with bat¬ 
tery disconnected. 





CONTENTS 


xi 11 


CHAPTER XXV. PAGE 

The Delco Electrical System.1G7 

Motoring the generator—Cranking the engine—Generat¬ 
ing electrical energy—Diagram of motor generator op¬ 
eration—Lubrication—Ignition switch—Circuit breaker 
—Ignition coil—Distributor—Contact breaker and timer 
—Care. 


CHAPTER XXVI. 

Storage Battery. 180 

Construction—Chemical action—Cells—Electrolyte solu¬ 
tion—Battery charging—Care and maintenance—Hy¬ 
drometer testing—Battery idle—Battery freezing—Gen¬ 
eral care. 


CHAPTER XXVII. 

Spark Plugs and Care. 186 

Type—Construction—-Connections—Assembling—Repair¬ 
ing—Cleaning—General care. 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 

Clutch Construction, Type and Care .lSD 

Clutch operation—Gear shifting—Change speeds—Cone 
clutch—Cone clutch care—Cone clutch adjustment—Mul¬ 
tiple disc clutch—Borg and Beck clutch—Borg and Beck 
clutch adjustment—Disc clutch cleaning, wet plate, dry 
plate—Cone clutch leather—Cone clutch leather patterns 
—Cutting—General care. 

CHAPTER XXIX. 

Transmissions, Types, Operation and Care. 198 

Operation of—Planetary type—Progressive type—Selec¬ 
tive type—Gear shifts—Unit-power-plant—Transmission 
cleaning—Lubrication—Care. 

CHAPTER XXX. 

Universal Joints.204 

Universal joints—Slip joints—Operation—Construction 
diagram—Tightening—Lubrication—Care. 

CHAPTER XXXI. 

Differential Gears.207 

Bevel gear action—Construction—Adjusting—Gearless 
differential—Action—-Adjustment— Advantage— Worm 
gear drive differential—Operation—Adjustment—Lubri¬ 
cation—General care. 






XIV 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER XXXII. 

Axle Types, Operation and Care. 

Dead axles—The semi-floating axle—Adjustment—Lubri¬ 
cation—The full-floating axle—Construction — Adjust¬ 
ment—Lubrication—The I-beam front axle—The spindle 
—Steering knuckle—Care of all types. 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 

Brake Types, Operation and Care. 

Brake adjustment—Brake re-lining—Brake care—Brake 
cleaning. 

CHAPTER XXXIV. 

Springs and Spring Care Tests. 

Spring types—Spring lubrication—Weekly spring care— 
Bi-monthly spring care—Spring wrapping. 

CHAPTER XXXV. 


Alignment. 

Wheel alignment—Lengthwise—Crosswise—Axle align¬ 
ment—Lengthwise—Alignment tests—Mechanical align¬ 
ment—Lengthening wheelbase. 

CHAPTER XXXVI. 

Steering Gears, Type and Construction. 

Operation of worm and sector type—Adjustment of worm 
and sector type—Worm and nut type—Adjustment of 
worm and nut type—Rack and pinion type—Connections 
—Drag link—General care. 

CHAPTER XXXVII. 

Bearing Types, Use and Care. 

Plain bearings — Bushings — Roller bearings — Flexible 
roller bearings—Radial ball bearings—Thrust ball bear¬ 
ings— End thrust—Double thrust—Cleaning—Care— 
Maintenance. 


CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

Car Arrangement . 

Showing location and names of parts—Adjustment— 
General care. 

CHAPTER XXXIX. 

Overhauling the Car. 

Instructions showing how to go about it—And how to 
give the car a thorough overhauling. 


PAGE 

212 


21S 


223 


229 


232 


236 


243 


247 









CONTENTS 


xv 


CHAPTER XL. PAas 

Repair Equipment.251 

Road repair necessities—Shop repair necessities. 

CHAPTER XLI. 

Car Cleaning, Washing and Care.253 

Body construction—Body washing—Running gear wash¬ 
ing—Engine cleaning—Cleaning upholstering—Rug clean¬ 
ing—Windshield cleaning—Sedan or closed body cleaning 
—Tire cleaning—Rim cleaning—Light lens cleaning. 
Caution. 

CHAPTER XLII. 

Tires, Build, Quality and Care.256 

Tire care—Tire chains—Cross chains—Tube care—Tube 
repairing—Tire and tube storage. 

CHAPTER XLIII. 

Electrical System.259 

General overhauling and tuning hints. 

CHAPTER XLIV. 

Automobile Painting.262 

CHAPTER XLV. 

Carbon Removing.263 

Trouble Hints.264 

FORD SUPPLEMENT. 

I The car—its operation and care.269 

II The Ford Engine.277 

III The Ford Cooling System. 287 

IV The Gasoline System ... 290 

V The Ford Ignition System .295 

VI The Ford Transmission.301 

VII The Rear Axle Assembly.307 

VIII The Ford Muffler.310 

IX The Ford Running Gear.311 

X The Ford Lubrication System.316 

XI Care of Tires.320 

XII Points of Maintenance.323 

XIII The Ford One Ton Truck.325 

XIV The F. A. Starting and Lighting System Installed on 

Sedans and Coupes.328 

Index . 335 




























ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE PAGE 

1. Typical Four-Cylinder Block.13 

2. Cylinder Block with Head Removed ..... 13 

3. Removable Cylinder Head (Reversed) .... 14 

4. Typical Cylinder Piston.15 

5. Typical Piston Ring.15 

6. Typical Connecting Rod.16 

7. Counter-Balanced Crank Shaft.17 

8. 5-M-B Crank Shaft.17 

9. Cam Shaft.18 

10. Flywheel.19 

11. 8-Cylinder Valve Arrangement.22 

12. Poppet Valve.23 

13. Valve Types, Location and Operation .... 24 

14. Valve Timing Marks.25 

15. Knight Valve-Timing Marks—4-Cylinder ... 27 

16. Knight Valve-Timing Marks—8-Cylinder ... 28 

17. 4-Stroke Cycle. 29 

18. Diagram of Action, 4-Cylinder 4-Cycle Engine . 31 

19. Power Stroke Diagram.32 

20. Buick Engine—Parts Assembly.36 

21. Buick Engine—Location Inside Parts Assembly . 37 

22. Buick Motor—End View.38 

23. Liberty U. S. A. Engine.39 

24. Splash Oiling.41 

25. Plunger Pump Oiling System.42 

26. Stromberg Model M Carburetor—Sectional View . 46 

27. Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Air Bleeder Ac¬ 

tion .47 

28. Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Accelerating Well 49 

29. Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Idling Operation 51 

30. Stromberg Carburetor—Throttle % Open ... 52 

31. Stromberg Carburetor—Throttle Wide Open . . 53 

32. Stromberg Model M—Adjustment Points ... 55 

xvii 





















XV111 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE PAGE 

33. Stromberg Model “L”—Adjustment Points . . 58 

34. Sunderman Carburetor.60 

35. Sunderman Carburetor.61 

36. Sunderman Carburetor.62 

37. Sunderman Carburetor.63 

38. Schebler Model R Carburetor Assembled ... 64 

39. Stewart Carburetor.66 

40. Carter Carburetor.70 

41. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A—Sectional View 72 

42. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A—Adjustment 

Points. 73 

43. Holley Kerosene Carburetor.76 

44. Holley Kerosene Carburetor Installment ... 77 

45. Hot Spot Manifold.79 

46. Holley Vapor Manifold—Ford Cars.80 

47. Thermo-Svphon Cooling System.82 

48. Muffler—Three Compartment.86 

49. Muffler.87 

50. Vacuum System—Top Arrangement .... 89 

51. Vacuum System Installation.90 

52. Vacuum System Diagram—Stewart Warner . . 91 

53. Vacuum System—Inside View of Parts .... 94 

54. Coil Diagram. 96 

55. Dynamo—Diagram of Action.98 

56. Magnets—Pole Blocks.101 

57. Armature Core—Wound Armature.102 

58. Primary and Secondary Winding and Current Di¬ 

rection .102 

59. Breaker—Slip Ring—Distributor.103 

60. Bosch M Distributor and Interruptor—Housing Re¬ 

moved .106 

61. Wiring Diagram Bosch Magneto, Type ZR-4 . . 107 

62. Wiring Diagram, North-East System—on Dodge 

Car.115 

63. North-East Distributor—Model O—Ignition . . 116 

64. North East Breaker-Box.118 

65. Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism—North East 121 

66. Atwater Kent Circuit Diagram—Type C. C. . 127 

67. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Tj^pe C. C. . . 128 

68. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block . 128 




















ILLUSTRATIONS 


xix 


FIGURE 

69. 

70. 

71. 

72. 

73. 

74. 

75. 

76. 

77. 

78. 

79. 

80. 
81. 
82. 

83. 

84. 

85. 

86 . 

87. 

88 . 

89. 

90. 

91. 
911. 

92. 

93. 

94. 

95. 

96. 

97. 

98. 

99. 
100 . 
101 . 


Distributor Wire Connections to Distributor . 
Atwater Kent Type C. C. Wiring Diagram 
Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action 

—Type K-2 System. 

Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action 

—Type K-2 System. 

Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action 

—Type K-2 System. 

Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action 

—Type K-2 System. 

Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block . 
Atwater Kent Wiring Diagram Type K-2 . 

Atwater Kent K-2 Wiring. 

Atwater Kent Automatic Spark Advance Mecha¬ 
nism—A-K Type K-2. 

Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Oiling Diagram— 

A-K Type K-2. 

Philbrin Contact Maker—Point Adjustment 
Philbrin Contact Maker and Distributor Blade . 

Switch Case. 

Duplex High Frequency Switch. 

Philbrin Wiring Diagram. 

Bijur 2-V System Mounted on Hupmobile Engine . 
Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action . 

Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action . 

Wiring Diagram Model N—Hupmobile .... 
Wiring Diagram—Jeffrey-Chesterfield Six . 

Wiring Diagram—Jeffrey Four. 

Hydrometer Syringe. 

Dodge Wiring Diagram. 

North East Model G Starter Generator .... 
Delco Motor Generator—Showing Parts .... 
Delco Motor Generator—Diagram of Operation 

Delco Ignition Switch Plate. 

Delco Ignition Switch Circuit Breaker—Mounted . 

Delco Ignition Coil. 

Delco Wiring Diagram—Buick Cars. 

Delco Ignition Distributor. 

Delco Ignition Contact Breaker and Timer . 
Storage Battery, Sectional View. 


PAGE 

129 

130 

133 

133 

134 

134 

135 

136 

137 

138 

139 

141 

142 

143 

144 

145 
149 

151 

152 

153 
155 

158 

159 
162 
164 
168 
170 
173 
173 

175 

176 

177 

178 
180 











XX 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE PAGE 

102. Storage Battery, Sectional View.182 

103. Hydrometer Syringe.183 

104. Spark Plug.187 

105. Cone Clutch and Brake.190 

106. Multi-Disc Unit Power Plant, Clutch and Transmis¬ 

sion . 192 

107. Borg and Beck Clutch.193 

108. Cone Clutch Leathers—Pattern—Cutting . . . 196 

109. Friction Transmission.199 

110. Selective Type of Gear Shifts.200 

111. Sliding Gear Transmission—Sectional View . . 201 

112. Clutch and Transmission Assembly—Unit Power 

Plant.203 

113. Slip Joint and Universal.204 

114. Universal Joint Construction Diagram .... 205 

115. Differential Action Diagram.207 

116. Differential Assembly.208 

117. Differential Adjusting Points.209 

118. Allen Gearless Differential.210 

119. Semi-Floating Rear Axle.. 213 

120. Full-Floating Axle—Wheel-End Arrangement . . 214 

121. Full-Floating Axle.214 

122. Steering Knuckle and Front Axle Parts .... 215 

123. I-Beam Front Axle.216 

124. Brake—Types and Adjustment.219 

125. Brake—Showing Toggle Arrangement .... 220 

126. Transmission Brake—Equalizer.220 

127. Brake—Arrangement and Adjustment—“Buick” . 221 

128. ^-Elliptical Front Spring.226 

129. Full-Elliptic Spring.226 

130. %-Elliptical Rear Spring.227 

131. Platform Spring.227 

132. Cantilever Spring, Front.228 

133. Cantilever Spring, Rear.228 

134. Wheel Alignment Diagram.230 

135. Worm and Sector Steering Gear.233 

136. Worm and Nut Steering Gear.234 

137. Rack and Pinion Type Steering Gear .... 234 

138. Steering Wheel.235 

139. Plain Bearings or Bushings.236 























ILLUSTRATIONS xxi 

FIGURE PAGE 

140. Shims.237 

141. Bock Roller Bearing.237 

142. Hyatt Roller Bearing.238 

143. Double Row Radial Ball Bearing.239 

144. Double Row Thrust Bearing.241 

145. End Thrust Bearing.241 

146. Car Arrangement.245 

147. Ford Motor—Sectional View.278 

148. Ford Motor—Valve and Cjdinder Assembly . .279 

149. Ford Fuel System.290 

150. Ford Transmission Assembly.303 

151. Ford Rear Axle System.308 

152. Ford Brake.309 

153. Ford Spindle ..311 

154. Ford Chassis Oiling Chart.317 


I 




















THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER S 

GUIDE 


INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 

HISTORY OF THE GAS ENGINE AND EARLY 
AUTOMOBILE CONSTRUCTION 

A great many experiments were conducted with the explo¬ 
sive type of motor between 1840 and 1860. These motors 
were very heavy and crude affairs and furnished little or no 
power. They were either abandoned or given up by those 
conducting the experiments, and had all but disappeared in 
the later 50’s. The chief difficulties that they could not over¬ 
come were, the finding of a suitable and combustible fuel, 
a way to distribute it to the explosion chambers in proper 
proportion, and a device to ignite it at the proper time. 
Many of these early inventions used coal tar gases and gun¬ 
powder as fuel. 

The first designs for an internal combustion engine of the 
four stroke cycle type were devised in 1862 by M. Beau de 
Rochas. These designs were taken in hand by a German by 
the name of Otto, and many experiments were conducted by 
him and two other Germans, Diamler and Benz, which re¬ 
sulted in a fairly successful engine. The Otto Gas Engine 
Co., of Deutz, Germany, was then formed with Diamler as 
general manager. Experiments were carried on which re¬ 
sulted in many improvements, such as valve adjusting and 
electrical spark ignition. Many other smaller improvements 
were worked out which overcame many of the difficulties of 
the former and cruder devices. 

1 


2 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


The first gas engines were all of the single cylinder type, 
very heavily constructed and produced from three to five 
horse power. In 1886, Diamler conceived the idea of con¬ 
structing the multiple type of engine with water-jacketed 
cylinders. Benz also completed a very successful motor in 
the late fall of 1886, which embodied the w r ater cooling idea. 
The practical beginning of the gas engine as a factor in 
vehicle propulsion began in the fall of 1886, when Diamler 
applied his motor to a two-wheeled contrivance, which greatly 
resembled our present-day motorcycle. While this machine 
ran, it was not considered a very great success. Benz in the 
early part of 1887, connected his motor to a three-wheeled 
vehicle with which he was able to travel at the rate of three 
miles per hour. 

The real beginning of the present-day automobile took place 
in Paris, France, in 1890, when M. Panhard secured the 
patent rights from Diamler to use his engine. He then built 
a four-wheeled vehicle, which carried some of the ideas of 
present-day construction, such as a steering device and brakes. 
To this he applied his engine and was able to travel at the rate 
of six miles per hour. In 1891 Peugeot Freres completed 
their vehicle and installed a Benz engine. This vehicle or 
car, as it was then called by the French government on ac¬ 
count of its being mechanically driven, w T as able to make from 
seven to eight miles per hour. 

The perfecting of the automobile was hampered very much 
between the years 1891 and 1898 by stringent laws that had 
been enacted by the French government, which all but pro¬ 
hibited the driving of a car on the public thorough¬ 
fare. 

The first American-made automobile of the gas propelled 
type was completed in the year 1892 by Charles Duryea. 
This car embodied many of our present-day ideas but was 
very lightly constructed and under-powered. 

In 1893 another car made its appearance in America. This 
car was built by Edward T. Haynes and was the beginning 
of the present-day Haynes’ line of famous cars. 


INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 


3 


The first automobile club was organized in Paris, France, 
in the year 1894 with the Marquis de Doin as president. 
The purpose of this club was to secure a reformation of the 
laws that had been enacted w T hen the automobile made its first 
appearance on the public thorough-fare, and to make laws 
and rules to govern automobile racing. 

At that time it was necessary when driving on a public 
highway to have some one run seventy-five feet in advance 
of a car waving a red flag, and to shout a warning at street 
intersections. These stringent laws, however, were repealed by 
the government through influential aid brought to bear on it 
by the automobile club assisted by the rapid progress of the 
automobile industry. 

PURCHASING A NEW CAR 

Things to be Considered to Make the Investment Safe 

When you are going to buy a new car go about it in this 
manner and protect your investment. 

First.—Choose the car that suits you best in regard to 
cost, operation, and appearance. 

Second.—Inquire as to the financial status of the manu¬ 
facturer. If there is anything wrong with the car, or the 
management of the company, it will show up here. 

Third.—Orphaned cars may run as well and give as good 
service as anybody could ask for, but when a company fails 
or discontinues to manufacture a model, the car immediately 
loses from one-third to one-half of its actual value. That is, 
providing you wish to trade it in or sell it as a used car. 

Fourth.— W T hat kind of service does the agency in your 
vicinity give*? Do they take any interest in the cars they sell 
after they are in the hands of the purchaser? 

Fifth.—The amount of interest taken in your purchase by 
the agent or service station usually determines the amount of 
depreciation at the end of the season. 

Sixth.—If you are purchasing your first car some little ad¬ 
justments will be required, and conditions will arise that re- 


4 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


quire understanding and attention. You, therefore, must ac¬ 
quire either a functional and mechanical knowledge of the 
operation, or depend on the agent or service station for help. 

Seventh.—You will probably say that you can get along 
without such help. You probably can, but what will be the 
results? Will you be required to stand a loss in the long run 
resulting from excessive repair bills and depreciation which 
could have been prevented to a great extent? 

Eighth.—Remember that an agent can fool you when you 
are buying, but that you cannot fool him if you wish to sell 
or trade in. 

Ninth.—Remember that this book, The Automobile Owners’ 
Guide, was written to assist you in just such cases as we have 
presented, and that by spending a little time in study you 
can acquire a working knowledge of your car, and become 
independent of the service station and the agent, which will 
result in a big saving in both repair bills and depreciation. 

PURCHASING A USED CAR 
How to Estimate Its Value 

The question is often asked, Does it pay to invest money 
in a second-hand car? The answer may be either yes or no, 
and depends entirely upon the condition of the car. 

For example, A and B purchase a new car at the same 
time. A is father conservative. He is also a careful driver 
and gives his car the best of attention. B is a careless driver 
and pays little or no attention to adjustments and lubrica¬ 
tion. 

A has seen to proper lubrication and has kept the parts 
properly adjusted and tightened up, and his careful driving 
has kept the alignment in perfect condition. His car at the 
end of the first season requires a little overhauling which will 
put it in as good condition as it was when it was new as far 
as service is concerned, and it is worth 85 to 90 per cent of 
its original value. 

B has not seen to proper lubrication and has allowed his 


INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 


5 


motor to overheat. The cylinders and pistons are scored and 
worn, and the valves are warped and do not seat properly. 
He drove into deep ruts and chuck-holes, and bumped into 
curbs and posts while turning around. His axles and wheels 
are out of line; the frame and all the running parts which 
it supports are out of alignment. Overhauling will not put 
this car in A-l condition, and it is not worth more than 30 
per cent, of the original cost price. It would be a poor in¬ 
vestment at any price to an owner who is buying it for his 
own use. 

Selecting and Testing a Used Car.—First.—If you are buy¬ 
ing from a dealer who trades in cars, judge his statement of 
the condition of a car according to his ability as a mechanic 
and according to his reputation for accuracy. If you are 
buying from a reputable used car dealer his word can usually 
be taken as a correct statement of conditions as his business 
depends upon the accuracy of his statements and he knows 
the condition of a car before he buys it. 

Second.—See the former owner. Get his statement of the 
condition of the car and the care it has had, and judge it 
by his appearance, and the general appearance of his home 
and property. 

Third.—If the car is listed as Rebuilt or Overhauled , see 
if the oil-pan, differential, and transmission covers have been 
removed. If this has been done the old grease will either 
have been cleaned off or show marks of the removal. If these 
marks are found the proper adjustments and replacements 
have probably been made. 

Fourth.—Don’t judge the mechanical condition of a car by 
its outward appearance. 

Fifth.—Examine the tires and figure the cost of replace¬ 
ment if any are found in poor condition. 

Sixth.—Jack up the front axle and test the wheels for 
loose or worn bearings. 

Seventh.—Grasp the wheel at the top and bottom and 
wiggle it to determine whether the spindle bolts or steering 
device connections are worn. 


6 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


Eighth.—Jack up the rear axle, set the gear shift-lever 
into high-speed, move the wheel in and out from the bottom 
to discover worn bearings, and move the wheel, forward and 
backward, to determine the amount of back-lash in the dif¬ 
ferential and universal joints. 

Ninth.—Test the compression of the cylinders while the en¬ 
gine is cold using the hand crank. If one cylinder is found 
weak, a leak exists and the escaping compression can be 
heard. 

Tenth.—Run the motor until it is warm. If any weakness 
in compression is noticeable the cylinders are probably scored, 
or the rings may be worn. The valves may also be warped, 
thereby preventing them from seating properly. 

Eleventh.—Examine the shoulders of the cross-members 
supporting the engine, radiator, or transmission to see if 
they are cracked or broken. 

Twelfth.—The battery may have deteriorated through im¬ 
proper attention. Test the solution with a hydrometer. If 
it is found well up, it can be passed as 0. K. 

Thirteenth.—Don’t judge the condition of the car by the 
model, as a two or three-year-old model may be in better 
mechanical condition than a six-month or year-old model. 


DRIVING INSTRUCTIONS 

A new driver should remain cool and take things in a 
natural way as a matter of course. There is nothing to get 
nervous or excited about when learning to drive a car. Any 
one can master the art of driving quickly by remaining cool 
and optimistic. 

First.—Acquire some definite knowledge of the operation of 
the engine and its accompanying devices. 

Second.—Have some one explain the operation of the 
accelerator, spark, and throttle levers. 

Third.—Study the relative action of the clutch and gear- 
shifting pedal. 


INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 


7 


Fourth.—The new driver takes the wheel and assumes a 
natural and calm position with the muscles relaxed. 

Fifth.—He adjusts the motor control levers. The throttle 
lever is advanced one-fourth its sliding distance on the quad¬ 
rant. The spark lever is set to one-half the sliding distance 
on the quadrant. 

Sixth.—Push the ignition-switch button, IN, or ON, and 
press the starter button, letting it up as soon as the engine 
begins to fire. 

Seventh.—Not all gear-shifts are marked, consequently it 
is a good idea to let the new driver feel out the different 
speed changes. This is accomplished by pushing out the 
clutch and placing the shift-lever into one of the four slots. 
Now let up the clutch pedal until it starts to move the car, 
continue the feeling-out process until the reverse speed gear 
is located, and at this point impress on him that first and 
reverse speeds, are always opposite each other, lengthwise 
either on the right or left side of neutral, while second speed 
is always crosswise opposite reverse, and high-speed is op¬ 
posite first on the other side of neutral. 

Eighth.—Starting the car with engine running, advance the 
spark-lever three-fourths the distance on the quadrant, ad¬ 
vance the throttle until the engine is turning over nicely 
(not racing). Place one hand on the steering-wheel and with 
the other grasp the gear-shift-lever, push in the clutch pedal, 
hold it for five seconds, in order that the clutch brake may 
stop rotation. Place the shift-lever into the first-speed slot 
and let up on the clutch pedal. The car should be driven 
four or five hundred feet on this speed until the driver ac¬ 
quires the “nack” of steering. 

Ninth.—To shift to second speed advance the gas throttle 
until the car gathers a smooth rolling motion, press in the 
clutch pedal and allow three to five seconds for the brake to 
retard the speed of the clutch, then shift the lever to second 
speed and release the clutch pedal easily. 

Tenth.—To shift into high-speed retard the throttle lever 
a trifle (to prevent the engine from racing), throw out the 


8 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S G-UIDE 


clutch and shift the lever into the high-speed slot. Perform 
these operations slowly but without hesitation. 

Eleventh.—To shift to reverse speed go through the same 
operation that you followed when first was used, except that 
the shift-lever is placed in the reverse slot. 

Twelfth.—The reverse speed-gear is never engaged unless 
the car is at a “stand-still,” as this gear turns in an opposite 
direction. 

Thirteenth.—Always test the emergency brake lever and the 
speed shift-lever, to be sure that they are in a neutral posi¬ 
tion before starting the engine. 

Fourteenth.—Remember that in case of emergency the car 
can be stopped quickly by pushing in both foot-pedals. Pres¬ 
sure on the clutch pedal disconnects the engine from the car, 
■while pressure on the “foot” or service brake pedal, slows up 
the motion of the car and will bring it quickly to a stand¬ 
still. 

Fifteenth.—Always push the clutch out when using the 
service brake to check the rolling motion of the car. 

Sixteenth.—When you wish to stop the car and motor kick 
out the clutch and hold it in this position while you stop the 
rolling motion of the car with the service brake and shift 
the gears to neutral. Then set the emergency brake and turn 
off the switch to stop the motor. 

If the engine cannot take the car up a steep grade in low 
speed (due to defective motor or gravity fuel feed) stop, en¬ 
gage reverse speed, turn off the ignition switch, and let the 
car back down to level or a place where you can turn around, 
and back up the hill. The reverse speed is geared from one 
and a half to two times lower than first speed. 

Nineteen.—To stop the back wheels from skidding turn the 
front wheels in the direction which the back wheels are slid¬ 
ing and release the brakes. Turning away or applying the 
brakes adds momentum to the sliding motion. 

Twenty.—If for any reason you must or cannot avoid driv¬ 
ing into the ditch unless the ditch is very shallow, turn the 
car directly toward the opposite bank. The front or rear 


INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 


9 


springs will lodge in the bank and prevent the car from 
rolling over and crushing the occupants, and the car can be 
drawn out more easily from this position. 

ROAD RULES FOR CITY AND COUNTRY 

1. —Be courteous to all whom you meet and give your as¬ 
sistance if necessary. 

2. —When encountering a bad stretch of road, with the 
track on your side, don’t drive in and force another machine 
coming towards you to get out of the track. WAIT. 

3. —Never block a track. In case you wish to stop and 
talk to some one, drive to one side. 

4. —Keep on the right hand side of the road at all times, 
whether moving or standing, except as prescribed in Para¬ 
graph 5. 

5. —In passing vehicles traveling in the same direction, 
always pass on the left and blow the horn. 

6. —In passing a vehicle that has just stopped, slow down 
and sound the horn. 

7. —In changing your direction, or stopping, always give the 
appropriate hand signal. 

8. —Hand signals, straight up or up on 45° angle, STOP. 
Straight out or horizontal, TURNING TO THE LEFT. 
Down at an angle of 45°, TURNING TO TPIE RIGHT. 

9. —The distance between vehicles outside of towns and 
cities, 20 yards; between vehicles passing through towns and 
cities, 5 yards; between vehicles halted at the curb, 2 yards. 

10. —Bring all vehicles under easy control at street and road 
intersections. 

11. —A maximum driving speed should not exceed 7 miles 
in business sections of cities, 15 miles in residential sections, 
25 miles on country roads. 

12. —Form the habit of slowing down and looking both ways 
before crossing tracks. 

13. —Always pass a street car on the right side. 

14. —Always stop 8 feet from a street car when pas- 


10 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


sengers are getting off, unless there is a safety zone, then 
drive slowly. 

15. —Never drive over the side-walk line while waiting for 
signal of traffic officer. 

16. —Notify traffic officer which way you wish to turn 
with hand signal. 

17. —Always stop and wait for an opening when driving 
from a side street or road into a main thoroughfare. 

18. —Make square turns at all street corners unless other¬ 
wise directed by traffic officer. 

19. —If you wish to turn from one street into another wait 
until the traffic officer gives the straight ahead signal, then 
give the appropriate signal to those in the rear. 

20. —Always drive near the curb when you wish to turn to 
the right, and to the right of the center line of the street 
when you wish to turn to the left. 

21. —Drive straight ahead at 42nd St. and 5th Ave., N. Y., 
and at Market and Broad St., Newark, N. J. These corners 
handle more traffic than any two corners in the United States. 
No turns are made at either corner. 

22. —Exercise care not to injure road ways. 

23. —Do not damage improved roads by the use of chains 
when unnecessary. 

24. —In case the car is not provided with chains, rope 
wrapped around the tires will make a good substitute. 

25. —In case of fire, do not try to put it out with water as 
the gasoline will only float and spread the fire. Use a fire 
extinguisher or smother with sand or with a blanket. 

WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF ACCIDENT 

1. —In case of injury to person or property stop car and 
render such assistance as may be needed. 

2. —Secure the name of person injured or of owners of 
said property. 

3. —Secure names and addresses of witnesses to the accident. 

4. —Draw diagram of streets as shown in Fig. A. Show 


INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 


11 


relative positions of the colliding vehicles and the object of 
pedestrian just before the accident. 

5.—Label streets and every object depicted and add meas- 


Main St. 


CO 

TJ 

CO 

Fig. A. Street Intersection 

urements and line showing course followed by vehicles, etc., 
and any explanatory statements which would aid an under¬ 
standing of the occurrence. 

6.—File this report at police headquarters. 










CHAPTER I 


GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS 

We will use for purposes of illustration the common four- 
cylinder, four cycle, cast en bloc, “L”-head type of motor, as 
this type is used probably by 90% of the automobile manu¬ 
facturers. The block of this type of motor is cast with an 
overlapping shoulder at the upper left hand side which con¬ 
tains a compartment adjoining the combustion chamber in 
which the intake and exhaust valves seat, and the casting is 
made, in the shape of the Capital letter L turned upside down. 
This arrangement allows both valves to seat in one chamber 
and to operate from one cam shaft. 

The operation of each cylinder is identically the same 
whether you have a one or a many cylindered motor, conse¬ 
quently when you have gained a working knowledge of one 
cylinder, others are a mere addition. This may sound con¬ 
fusing when the eight or twelve cylindered motor is men¬ 
tioned, but is more readily understood when we consider the 
fact that an eight or twelve cylindered motor is nothing more 
than two fours or two sixes, set to a single crank-case or base 
in Y-shape to allow the connecting rods of each motor to 
operate on a single crank shaft. This arrangement also al¬ 
lows all the valves to operate from a single cam shaft, thereby 
making the motor very rigid and compact, which is an abso¬ 
lute necessity considering the small space that is allowed for 
the motor in our present-day designs. 

Fig. 1. The casting or block, which is the foundation of the 
whole motor or engine, usually has a removable head which 
allows for easy access to the pistons and valves. The block 
is cast with a passage or compartment through the head 

12 


GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS 13 

and around the cylinders through which water circulates for 
cooling the adjoining surfaces of the cylinders. This allevi¬ 
ates the danger from expansion and contraction caused by 
the tremendous heat generated in and about the combustion 



chambers. This block also contains the cylinders and valve 
seats. The pistons and valves are fitted to their respective 
positions as construction progresses. 

Fig. 2. The block with head removed shows the smooth 
flush surface of the block face and the location of the cylin¬ 
ders in which the pistons operate or slide, with each power 
impulse or explosion. When the piston is at its upper ex¬ 



treme it comes within a sixteenth of an inch of being flush 
with the top of the block, while the valves (also shown in 
Fig. 2) rest on ground-in seats, in their respective chambers, 
and are operated by a stem which extends downward from 
the head through a guide bushing in the block to the cam 
shaft. 

































14 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


The location of the water vents is also shown, through 
which water is circulated to prevent the cylinders from over¬ 
heating which would cause the pistons to “stick” from ex¬ 
pansion. 

Fig. 3. The top or head of the motor is removed, exposing 
the combustion chambers. These chambers must be abso¬ 
lutely air-tight as the charge of gas drawn in through the 
in-let valve is compressed here before the explosion takes place, 
and low compression means a weak explosion, which causes 
the motor to run with an uneven—jumpy motion, and with 
an apparent great loss of power. A copper fiber insert gasket 



is placed between the top of the block and the head before it 
is bolted down. This gasket prevents any of the compression 
from escaping through unevenness of the contact surfaces, as 
metal surfaces are prone to warp when exposed to intense heat. 
It is necessary to turn the bolts in the head down occasionally, 
as the heat causes expansion. The following contraction, 
which loosens them, results in a loss of compression and a 
faulty operation of the motor. 

The spark-plug vents through the head are usually located 
directly over the piston although in some cases they are over 
the valve head and in some motors which are cast without a 
removable head they may be at one side of the combustion 
chamber. The location of the spark-plug does not materially 
affect the force of the explosion, although when it is located 
directly over the piston a longer plug may be used, as the 
pistons do not come up flush with the top of the block, 
and a spark-plug extended well into the combustion chamber 
will not become corroded with carbon or burnt oil as is usually 















GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS 15 


the case with a plug which does not extend beyond the upper 
wall surface of the combustion chamber. 

Fig. 4. The plunger or piston is turned down to fit snugly 
within the cylinder and is cast hollow, with two shoulders ex¬ 
tending from the inside wall. 

Fig. 4A shows a split piston. Three grooves are cut into it 
near the head to receive the piston rings. The width and 
depth of these grooves vary according to the size of the piston. 
A hole is bored through the piston and shoulders about half 




'Ring Groove 

Bushing 
Wrist P/'n 
Set Screw 

■Ping Groove 



Set Screw 
Bushing 
Wrist Pin 


Fig. 4. Typical Cylinder Piston 


way from each end. The bushing or plain bearing shown in 
Fig. 4B is pressed into this hole and forms a bearing for the 
wrist pin also shown in Fig. 4B. Wrist pins are usually made 
of a much softer metal than the bearing, and are subjected to 
severe duty, which often causes them to wear and produce a 
sharp knock; this may be remedied by pressing out the pin, 
giving it a quarter turn, and replacing it in that position. 



A B 

Fig. 5. Typical Piston Ring 


Fig. 5 shows a split joint piston ring. Piston rings are 
usually made from a high grade gray iron, which fits into 
the grooves in the piston and springs out against the cylinder 
walls, thereby preventing the compressed charge of gas from 
escaping down the cylinder, between the wall and the piston. 



























16 THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 

* 

Fig. 5A shows a piston equipped with leak-proof rings; this 
type of piston ring has overlapping joints, and gives excel¬ 
lent service, especially when used on a motor which has seen 
considerable service. Fig. 5B illustrates how piston rings 
may line up, or become worn from long use, or from faulty 
lubrication. This trouble may be easily detected by turning 
the motor over slowly. The escaping charge can usually be 
heard and the strength required to turn the motor will be 
found much less uniform on the defective cylinder. 

The motor should be overhauled at least once every year, 
and by applying new rings to the pistons at this time new 
life and snappiness may be perceived at once. 

The connecting rod shown in Fig. 6 has a detachable or split 
bearing on the large end, and takes its bearing on the crank 
pin of the crank shaft. The small or upper end may have 
either a hinge joint or press fit to the wrist pin. This rod 
serves as a connection and delivers the power stroke from the 
piston to the crank shaft. These rods are required to stand 


Wrist Pin Bearin g 


Bushing 


Upper Haff 
Crank Pin Bearing 


Cower Bq/P 
Bearing Bnd Orer/g/sa 



Bod Shims 

Fig. 6. Typical Connecting Rod 


very hard jars caused by the explosion taking place over the 
piston head. The bearings are provided with shims between 
the upper and lower half for adjusting. Piston or connect¬ 
ing rod bearings must be kept perfectly adjusted to prevent 
the bearings from cracking or splitting which will cause the 
rod to break and which may cause considerable damage to the 
crank case. 

Fig. 7 shows a counter balanced crank shaft. This type 








GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS 17 


cf crank-shaft is provided with weights which balance the 
shaft and carry the momentum gathered in the revolution. 


Rear Main Bearing 


Weight 


Center 
Main Bearing 


Fly Wheel 
Attached to Q_JL. 

this Rmg TO/ 



Front Main Bearing 


Timing Gear 
Attached 
Here 


Crank Pina 


Crank Pin 

Fig. 7. Counter-Balanced Crank Shaft 


Fig. 8 shows the plain type of crank shaft with the timing 
gear attached to the front end and the fly-wheel attached to 
the rear end. The crank shaft shown is carried or held by five 
main bearings, which is an exception, as the majority of motor 



manufacturers use only three main bearings to support the 
crank shaft, while in some of the smaller motors only two are 













































































































































18 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


used. These bearings are alwa3 7 s of the split type, the seat 
for the upper half is east into the upper part of the crank¬ 
case, and the lower half is usually attached to the upper half 
by four bolts which pass through the flange at each side of 
the bearing. Small shims of different sizes are employed be¬ 
tween the flanges of each half of the bearing in order to se¬ 
cure a perfect adjustment which is very essential, as these 
bearings are subjected to heavy strains and severe duty. A 
shim may be removed occasionally as the bearing begins to 
show wear. A worn main bearing can be detected by placing 
the metal end of a screw-driver or hammer on the crank-case 
opposite the bearing and the other end to the ear. If the 
bearing is loose or worn a dull bump or thud will be heard. 
This loosness should be taken up by removing a shim of the 
proper thickness. 



Fig. 9. Cam Shaft 

Main bearings run loose for any length of time will be 
found very hard to adjust as the jar which they are subjected 
to invariably pounds them off center which makes readjust¬ 
ment a very difficult task to accomplish with lasting effect. 
New main bearings in a motor should always be scraped to 
secure a perfect fit. A loose piston or connecting rod bearing 
will produce a sharp knock which can easily be determined 
from the dull thud produced by a loose main bearing. (Fig. 
9.) The cam shaft revolves on bearings and is usually located 
at the base of the cylinders on the left hand side looking to¬ 
ward the radiator and carries a set of cams for each cylinder. 
The cam pushes the valve open, and holds it in this position, 









GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS 19 


while the piston travels the required number of degrees of the 
cycle or stroke. 

1 he cam shaft is driven from the crank shaft usually 
through a set of timing gears, and operated at one-half the 
speed of the crank shaft in a four cycle motor, as a valve is 
only lifted once, while the crank shaft makes two revolutions 
or four strokes. The cam-shaft bearings, and the timing gears 
are usually self-lubricating and require very little attention. 
Timing of the cam shaft is a rather difficult matter and will 
be treated in a following chapter under the head of valve 
timing. 

The oil pan or reservoir forms the lower half or base of the 



Fig. 10. Flywheel 

crank case. The lubricating oil is carried here at a level which 
will allow the piston rods to dip into it at each revolution of 
the crank shaft. The timing gears receive their lubrication 
from the supply carried in the reservoir by means of a plunger 
or piston pump which is operated from the cam shaft. The 
balance of the motor is usually lubricated by a splash system 
taken up in a later chapter on lubrication. The oil is carried 
at a level between two points marked, high and low, on a glass 
or float gauge which is located on the crank case. A gasktt 
made of paper or fiber is used between the union or con¬ 
nection of the oil reservoir and the upper half of the crank 





20 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


case to prevent the oil from working out through the con¬ 
nection. 

Fig. 10 represents the flywheel. The flywheel is usually 
keyed to the crank shaft directly behind the rear main bearing. 
This wheel is proportionate in weight to the revolving speed 
of the motor, which it keeps in balance by gathering the force 
of the power stroke. The momentum gathered by it in this 
stroke carries the pistons through the three succeeding strokes 
called the exhaust, intake, and compression strokes. The fly¬ 
wheel also serves as a connection between the power-plant and 
the running gear of the car, as a part of the clutch is located 
on it, and the connection takes place either in the rim or on 
the flange. 


CHAPTER II 


VALVE CONSTRUCTION, TYPES, AND OPERATION 

The proper and accurate functional operation of the valves 
is as necessary to successful motor operation as the proper 
adjustment of a hairspring is to a watch, for if a hair¬ 
spring becomes impaired in any way, a watch will not keep 
correct time. This is the case in a motor when a valve be¬ 
comes impaired. The valves in a motor, therefore, must be 
considered the most vital part condusive to successful and 
economical operation of the motor. 

The valves are manufactured from a high grade tungsten 
or carbon steel, and are designed to withstand the intense 
heat which the heads located in the combustion chambers 
are subjected to, without warping. A perfect seat is required 
to prevent leaking, which will cause low compression and a 
weak power impulse, thus reducing the power and harmony 
of successful operation. 

The poppet valve is used by about ninety-five per cent, of 
motor manufacturers. This type of valve is mechanically 
operated from the cam shaft at one-half the crank shaft 
speed, as a valve is lifted only once in every four strokes, 
or two revolutions of the crank shaft. The reduction in 
speed is accomplished by using a gear on the cam shaft, 
twice the size of that on the crank shaft. 

The heads and chambers must be kept free from carbon 
which forms and bakes into a shale and has a tendency to 
crack and chip as the temperature changes in the com¬ 
bustion chambers. These chips are blown about in the 
cylinders until they lodge or are trapped by the descending 
valves. It then forms a pit on the seat and prevents the 

21 


22 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


valves from seating properly. This leaves an open spaee 
which attracts more carbon, and the entire functional action 
of the valve is soon impaired, necessitating regrinding in order 
that it may properly seat again. 

Carbon is generated from a poor gas mixture or from 
excessive use of lubricating oil and may be considered the 
chief cause of improper functional action of the valves. 


VALVE CONSTRUCTION, TYPES, AND OPERATION 
8-CYLINDERED V-TYPE ENGINE 


Fig. 11 shows the location of the cam shaft, valves, and 
tappet adjustment, on a V-shaped engine. The cylinders 
of this type of engine are arranged in two blocks, consist¬ 
ing of four cylinders in each, set directly opposite each other 
on an angle of 90°. The connecting rods from opposite 



Fig. 11. 8-Cylinder Valve Arrangement 















VALVE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 23 


cylinders are yoked and take their bearing on the same crank 
pin. This arrangement allows the intake and exhaust valves 
of each opposite cylinder to operate from a single cam shaft, 
or in other words the entire sixteen valves are operated by 
a single cam shaft carrying eight cams. Consequently an 
eight or twelve cylindered engine is identical in regard to 
valve timing to either a four or six cylindered engine. 



Valve Head 
” Seat 


>» Guide 
>» Stem 

» Spring 



Guide Bushing 
Push Bloch 

Roller 


Cam 


Fig. 12. Poppet Valve 


Fig. 12 shows a poppet valve. This type of valve has 
only one adjustment, called the tappet. The adjustment is 
made by turning the cap-screw out of the push block until 
the head comes into contact with the valve stem. The lock 
nut on the cap screw is then turned down tightly to the 


































24 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER'S GUIDE 


push block to hold the adjustment. A strong spring is placed 
on the valve stem which causes it to close quickly and remain 
closed until it comes into contact with the cam. 

Valves are set and operate in three different positions as 
shown in Fig. 13. The exhaust valve in this case seats on 
the floor of the combustion chamber and is operated by the 
stem which extends through the casting to the tappet, while 
the intake valve seats on the upper wall of the combustion 
chamber and is operated from over head by a push-rod ex¬ 
tending from the tappet to a rocker-arm. When both valves 
are operated from above and seat on the upper wall of the 



combustion chamber the motor is referred to as the over¬ 
head valve type of motor. In the majority of motors both 
valves seat on the floor of the valve chamber. 

Valve Timing.—Valve timing is usually accomplished by 
setting the first, or exhaust valve cam, to correspond with a 
mark on the flywheel and cylinder (shown in Fig. 14). 

This is accomplished by lining up the 14, or 16 D-C mark on 
the flywheel rim with the center mark on the cylinder block, 
and means that 14, or 16, pistons are on upper dead center of 
the compression stroke, the flywheel is then turned a trifle 
until the marks E-C, or Ex-C, is at upper dead center and in 


































































VALVE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 25 


line with the mark on the cylinder block. This means that 
the exhaust valve closes at this point. The cam shaft is then 
turned in the runnng direction and the cam shaft gear meshed 
at the valve closing or seating point. This is all that is neces¬ 
sary as the other cams take up correct operation when any 
one cam is set properly. 

Another method of valve timing used by some motor manu¬ 
facturers is shown in Fig. 14. It is simply necessary in 
this case to line up the prick punch marks on the timing gears 
—after getting the first position on upper D-C of the compres- 


Cylinder Marks 


1-4 Pistons 
on Upper 
Dead Center 


*T 

ri 

» 

/ I 

“7 

t 

V 

rf 


<3 

7 — « i 

y 

o 

1 

U 


is 

/ * 

u 





fly-wheel marks 


Running Direction of 
Fly Wheel 


Camshaft 
Gear 


MARKS LINED UP 
Timing Gear 
Punch Marks 

Fig. 14. Valve Timing Marks 



Crankshaft 

Gear 


sion stroke—to acquire correct valve time. No definite or 
average scale can be given for valve timing, as all different 
types of motors are timed differently. These instructions must 
be secured from the manufacturer when the motor is not 
marked. 

Valve Grinding.—A valve-grinding compound can be pur¬ 
chased at any garage or service station or one may be com¬ 
pounded by mixing emery dust with a heavy lubricating oil 
until a thin paste is formed. The valve spring is released 
next by forcing up the tension with a screw driver or valve 
lifter. A small H-shaped washer is drawn from a groove 
near the end of the stem, which frees the valve; it can then 
be pushed up and raised through the guide. A small spring 


















26 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


is placed over the valve stem. This spring should be strong 
enough to raise the valve one-half inch above the seat. A 
thin film of the grinding compound is evenly applied to the 
seating face of the valve head, a screw driver or ratchet fork 
is set in the groove on the head of the valve, and the handle 
rolled between the palms of the hands, covering about one- 
third of the distance around the valve seat; the valve is let up 
after the motion has been repeated four or five times, and re¬ 
peated at another angle until the entire surface of the valve 
is smoothly ground and allows the valve to seat perfectly. 

Valves.—The sleeve valve type of motor was invented 
several years ago by Charles A. Knight. He met with some 
difficulty in having it manufactured in this country because 
the lubrication system was thought to be inadequate and the 
poppet valve was then at the height of its popularity with 
the manufacturer of engines. 

Knight took his engine to Europe and made some slight 
improvements on it. It was then taken over and manu¬ 
factured by one of the large automobile manufacturing com¬ 
panies of that continent and is now being used by many of 
the celebrated automobile manufacturers of every country. 

The principle of operation does not differ in any respect 
from the ordinary type of four cycle motor, except, that in¬ 
stead of having the poppet type of valves it has a set of 
sleeves which slide up and down on the piston. The sleeves 
are operated from an eccentric shaft by a short connecting 
rod and carry ports which are timed to line up with the 
ports of the intake and exhaust manifold ports at the proper 
time in the cycle of operation. 

Fig. 15 shows the method of timing the sleeves on the 
four cylinder engine. First, turn the motor over in the run¬ 
ning direction until the marks (I-4-T-C) on the flywheel are 
in alignment with the marks on the cylinder casting. Turn 
the eccentric shaft in the running direction until the marks 
A, B, C, shown in Fig. 15 are lined up, and then apply 
the chain. 

To check up on the timing, back the flywheel up an inch 


VALVE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 27 


or two and insert a thin piece of tissue paper into the exhaust 
port and turn the engine in the running direction until the 
paper is pinched, which signifies that the valve is closed. 
The marks on the flywheel, timing gears, and the crank case 



Fig. 15. Knight Valve-Timing Marks—4-Cylinder 


should be in alignment. Fig. 16 shows a diagram of the 
timing marks on the eight cylinder Knight engine. The 
method of timing this engine is as follows: (1) Turn the 
engine over until the marks I-4-R-H—D-C align with the 
marks on the crank case. (2) Turn the eccentric shaft and 

































28 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


sprocket until the arrows shown in Fig. 16 are in line with 
the guide marks on the front end of the chain housing. Then 
put on the chain and check up the timing, using the thin 
piece of tissue paper. 



Fig. 16. Knight Valve-Timing Marks—8-Cylinder 
VALVE CONSTRUCTION 

If the sleeve rods are removed for some reason, the bear¬ 
ings should be fitted very loosely to the eccentric shaft when 
they aie put back. A looseness of about .008 of an inch is 
permissible. 
















CHAPTER III 


THE OPERATION OF A 4-CYCLE, 4-CYLINDERED ENGINE 

The four-cycle or Otto stroke type of gasoline engine should 
rightly be called the four-stroke-cycle engine, as it requires 
four strokes and two revolutions of the crank shaft to com¬ 
plete one cycle of operation. 

This type of motor is used almost universally by the manu¬ 
facturers of pleasure cars due to its reliability, and to the 
ability it has to furnish continuous power at all speeds with 
the minimum amount of vibration. 



Firing Exhaust Intake Compression 

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke 

12 3 4 

Fig. 17. 4-Stroke Cycle. 1—Cylinder in Action 

Fig. 17 shows a diagram of one cylinder in the four strokes 
of the cycle, and the distance traveled by the crank shaft dur¬ 
ing each stroke. No. 1 begins with a charge of compressed 
vapor gas in the cylinder and is called the firing or power 

29 


























30 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


stroke. The ignition system (explained in a later chapter) 
furnishes a spark at from five to fifteen degrees early or be¬ 
fore the piston reaches top dead center. Although the stroke 
theoretically starts before the piston reaches its highest point 
of ascent, the actual pressure or force of the explosion is not 
exerted until the piston has crossed dead center. This is due 
to the fact that the piston travels very rapidly, and that it 
requires a small fraction of a second for spark to ignite the 
compressed charge of gas. It may, therefore, be easily seen 
that, if the spark did not occur until the piston is on or has 
crossed dead center, the piston would have traveled part of the 
distance of the stroke, and as it is moving away from the high¬ 
est point of compression the pressure is reduced by allowing 
more volume space which causes a weak explosion and a short 
power stroke. The intake and exhaust valves are closed 
through the duration of the power stroke. 

No. 2. The exhaust stroke begins from fifteen to thirty de¬ 
grees early, or before the piston reaches lower dead center on 
the firing stroke. The exhaust valve opens at the start of this 
stroke allowing the pressure of the burnt or inert gas to escape 
before the piston begins to ascend on the upward part of the 
stroke, and closes seven to ten degrees late to allow the com¬ 
bustion chamber to clear out before the next stroke begins. 

No. 3. The intake or suction stroke begins with the piston 
descending from its highest level to its lowest level. The in¬ 
take valve opens ten or twenty degrees late, and as the piston 
is traveling on its descent, considerable vacuum pressure has 
formed which draws suddenly wdien the valve opens and starts 
the gas from the carburetor in full volume. The entire length 
of this stroke creates a vacuum which draws a full charge of 
vaporized gas into the cylinder through the open intake valve. 
The intake valve closes from ten to twenty degrees late in 
order that the full drawing force of the vacuum may be 
utilized while the piston is crossing lower center. 

No. 4. The compression stroke begins at the end of the in¬ 
take stroke with both valves closed. The piston ascends 
from its lowest extreme to its highest level, compressing the 


4-CYCLE, 4-CYLINDERED ENGINE 


31 


charge of gas which was drawn into the cylinder on the 
intake or suction stroke; and at the completion of this stroke 
the cylinder is again in position to start No. 1, the firing 
stroke, and begin a new cycle of operation. The cam shaft 
is driven from the crank shaft through a set of gears or a 
silent chain, and operates at one-half the speed of the crank 
shaft as a valve is lifted once through the cycle of operation, 
or two revolutions of the crankshaft. 

Fig. 18 shows the operation of a four-cylindered motor as 
it would appear if the cylinder block were removed. The 
timing or firing order of the motor shown in this diagram 
is 1-2-4—3. No. 1 cylinder is always nearest the radiator and 


/ 




Co»*pre.ssin& Evhauiwnc 
E*v*t.OHCn 


in 




Fig. 18. Diagram of Action, 4-Cylinder 4-Cycle Engine 


on the left in this diagram. No. 1 cylinder is firing. The in¬ 
take and exhaust valve remain closed while this stroke is taking 
place. This causes the entire force of the explosion to be ex¬ 
erted on the head of the receding piston. The cylinders, as 
may be seen in the diagram, are timed to fire in succession, 
one stroke behind each other. While No. 1 cylinder is on the 
firing stroke, No. 2 cylinder is compressing with both valves 
closed and will fire and deliver another power impulse as soon 
as No. 1 cylinder completes and reaches the lowest extreme 
of its firing stroke. No. 3 cylinder, being fourth in the firing 
order, has just completed the firing stroke and is starting the 
exhaust stroke which forces the burnt and inert gases out of 





















































32 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


the cylinder through the open exhaust valve. No. 4 cylinder 
which is third in the firing order has just completed the ex¬ 
haust stroke and is about to start the intake or suction stroke 
with the exhaust valve open. This diagram should be studied 
and memorized as it is often necessary to remove the wires 
which may easily be replaced if the firing order is known, or 
found by watching the action of the exhaust valves and made 
to conform with the distributor of the ignition system. (Note 
the running direction of the distributor brush and connect the 


a~CY L. 


8-CYL. 

Fig. 19. Power Stroke Diagram 

wires up in that direction.) For the firing order given above 
connect No. 4 wire to No. 3 distributor post, and No. 3 wire to 
No. 4 post, as this cylinder fires last. 

Fig. 19 shows a diagram of the power stroke impulse de¬ 
livered to the cycle in a one, two, four, and eight cylin- 
dered motor. A complete cycle consists of 360 degrees, and 
as there are four strokes to the cycle an even division would 
give a stroke of ninety degrees, which is not the case, how¬ 
ever, owing to the fact that the valves do not open and close 
at the theoretical beginning and ending point of each stroke 






4-CYL, 


4-CYCLE, 4-CYLINDERED ENGINE 


33 


which is upper dead center and lower dead center. The firing 
or power impulse stroke begins at approximately five to seven 
degrees before the piston reaches upper dead center on the 
compression stroke and ends from fifteen to thirty degrees 
before the piston or cycle of rotation of the crankshaft reaches 
lower dead center. This results in a power impulse of less 
than ninety degrees, which varies accordingly with valve tim¬ 
ing in the different makes of motors. Consequently we have 
a power stroke of a little less than ninety degrees in a one- 
cylinder motor; two power strokes of a little less than 180 
degrees in a two cylinder motor, while the power impulse of 
the four-cylinder motor very nearly completes the cycle. In 
the six, eight, and twelve cylinder motor the power strokes 
overlap, thereby delivering continuous power of very nearly 
equal strength. 

Twin, Four, and Six Cylindered Motors.—The operation of 
the twin'cylindered motor varies very little from the single 
four or six. It is simply a case where two, four, or two six 
cylindered motors are set to a single crank case at an angle 
which will allow the piston or connecting rods from the op¬ 
posite cylinders to operate on a single crank shaft. When the 
cylinders are set directly opposite each other the connecting 
rods are yoked and take their bearing on a single crank pin 
of the crank shaft. This, however, is not always the case, for 
Li some motors the connecting rods take their bearing side 
by side on the crank pin. The cylinders in this case are set 
to the crank case in a staggard position to allow the connect¬ 
ing rods from each cylinder to operate in line with the crank 
shaft. 

The cylinder blocks are usually set to the crank case at an 
angle of ninety degrees and are timed to furnish the power im¬ 
pulse or stroke opposite each other in the cycle of operation. 
The advantage of this formation is that two power strokes are 
delivered in one cycle of operation, which increases the power 
momentum and reduces the jar or shock of the explosion 
causing a sweet running vibrationless motor. 

The valves are usually operated by a single cam shaft lo- 


34 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


cated on the upper inside wall of the crank case. Valve tim¬ 
ing is accomplished by following the marks on the flywheel or 
lining up the prick punch marks on the gears, as shown in 
Chapter II on valves. 

When a magneto is used to furnish the current for ignition 
on an eight cylinder motor it has to be operated at the same 
speed as the crank shaft, as a cylinder is fired at each revolu¬ 
tion of the crank shaft and an interruption of the current is 
required at the breaker points to produce the secondary or 
high tension current at the spark plug gaps. 

Twelve cylindered motors are usually equipped with two 
distributors or a dual system, or two magnetos driven sepa¬ 
rately through a set of timing gears. 

Knight or Sleeve Valve Motor.—The Knight or sleeve valve 
motor operates on the same plan as the ordinary type of motor 
except that the valves form a sleeve and slide over the piston. 

MOTOR HORSEPOWER 


S. A. E. Scale 

FOUR-CYCLE HORSEPOWER RATING 


Bore 

1 cyl. 

2 cyl. 

4 cvl. 

6 cyl. 

2% 

3.00 

6.00 

12.00 

18.00 

2% 

3.00 

6.50 

13.00 

20.00 

3.00 

3.50 

7.00 

14.50 

21.50 

3 Vt 

4.00 

8.50 

17.00 

25.50 

3V 2 

5.00 

10.00 

20.00 

29.50 

3% 

5.50 

11.00 

22.50 

34.00 

4.00 

6.50 

13.00 

25.50 

38.50 

4 y 4 

7.00 

14.50 

29.00 

43.50 

4y 2 

8.00 

16.00 

32.50 

48.50 

4% 

9.00 

18.00 

36.00 

54.00 

5.00 

10.00 

20.00 

40.00 

60.00 

514 

11.00 

22.00 

44.00 

66.00 

5 % 

12.00 

24.00 

48.00 

73.00 

5% 

13.00 

26.50 

53.00 

79.50 

6.00 

14.50 

29.00 

57.50 

86.50 


This scale gives the nearest equivalent to the whole or half 
horsepower, as is required by State where licenses are paid at 
so much per horsepower. 

D2 times N 


Formula—S. A. E. 


2.5 


equals horsepower. 









4-CYCLE, 4-CYLINDERED ENGINE 


35 


The sleeves are operated by an eccentric shaft and are pro¬ 
vided with ports which are timed to conform with the ports 
of the intake and exhaust manifolds at the proper time. 

For sleeve valve timing see Chapter II on Valves. 

DISPLACEMENT 

There are probably few men operating cars to-day who fully 
understand what is meant by the term displacement, often 
used in referring to automobile races. It is one of the main 
factors or points in determining the class in which a car is 
qualified to enter under the laws that govern races. In look¬ 
ing over a race program, you will note that there are usually 
two or more classes, one of which is open, and another with a 
limited piston displacement, which gives the smaller cars a 
competing chance in their class. 

Consequently piston displacement is merely the volume dis¬ 
placed by all the piston in moving the full length of the 
stroke. The volume of a single cylinder is equal to the area 
of the bore multiplied by the length of the stroke, and the 
total displacement of a four cylinder motor will be four times 
this and that of a six cylinder motor, six times this. 

Piston displacement: 

D 2 times S times N times 3.14 
4 


Where D equals bore in inches 
S v < stroke in inches 

N ” number of cylinders 

Example: Required to find the piston displacement of a 

31/2 X 5 inch four-cylindered motor. D equals 3.5 
S equals 5. and N equals 4. 

Piston Displacement 

3.5 2 times 5 times 4 times 3.14 


4 





36 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


2 

< 

K 


!j 

iu 

CQ 



c: 

(d 

$ 

< 

< 

< 

u 

w 

X 

o 

U) o 

Vi 


V) 


o 

< o 

id 

2 

O 2 

I 

X 

£ 

U I 

1 p 

h 




Fig. 20. Buiek Engine—Parts Assembly 





















































































4-CYCLE, 4-CYLINDERED ENGINE 37 










































































































































































































































38 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


ROCKER ARM OIL WICK 


WING PLUG 
ROCKER ARM COY! 

ADJUSTING BALL 
LOCK NUT. 

WATER JACKE' 


SfiWW PLUG COVER 

COMBUSTION 

SPACE 

PUSH ROD. 


VALVE 

PUSH ROD COVER 


CYLINDER 

VALVE LIFTER CAPv 

VALVE \ 

LIFTER GUIDE CLAMP- 
VALVE UFTER SPRING 
VALVE LIFTER GUIDE 
VALVE UFTER 

CAM ROLLER PIN 
CAM ROLLER 

CAM SHAFT. 



EXHAUST 

MANIFOLD 

INTAKE 

MANIFOLD 

HOTAIR 

CHAMBER 


CONNECTING ROD 
CRANK CASE 

CRANK SHAFT 


Fig. 22. Buick Motor—End View 




















































































































































































































































































































































































































4-CYCLE, 4-CYLINDERED ENGINE 


39 


Skim* for 
Adjustmen 
Connecting 


Of 

Adjustment of > 
ing Rodv 


Oil Pump \ 
Filter Screeti/ 

Oil Pump 

O'I O'gin Plugs 



Fan Belt 
Adjustment 


(Split Coliar 
‘with Locking Cap 
Valve Tappet 
Adjustment 

/Cam Shaft End 

It 



Passage to 


7Oil Pipe to 
iPiston Ring 


(Oil Sump 
lFilter Screen 

Ftft Gasket 


Fig. 23. Liberty U. S. A. Engine 


3.5 times 3.5 times 5 times 4 times 3.14 


4 

equals 173.58 cubic inches. 

LUBRICATION SYSTEMS, OILS, AND GREASES 

Special attention should be given to regular lubrication, as 
this, more than any one thing, not only determines the life but 
also the economic up-keep of the ear. 

Whenever you hear an owner say that his car is a gas eater, 
or that it uses twice or three times as much oil as his neigh¬ 
bor’s, which is the same model and make, you know at once 
that he, or some one who has used the car before him, either 
did not give sufficient attention to lubrication, or used a poor 
grade of oil. It is almost impossible to impress the import¬ 
ance of the foregoing facts upon the minds of the average 
motorist, and we have, as a direct result, a loss of millions of 
dollars annually through depreciation. 

The manufacturers of automobiles and gasoline engines 
have earnestly striven to overcome this negligence by provid- 
































































































































































40 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


mg their products with automatically fed oiling systems 
which alleviate some of the former troubles. These sys¬ 
tems, however, also require some attention to function 
properly. 

Grease.—A medium grade of light hard oil grease is best 
adapted for use in grease cups, universal joints, and for 
packing wheel bearings and steering gear housings. The 
transmission and differential operate more successfully when a 
lighter grade of grease is used, such as a graphite compound, 
or a heavy oil known as 600 W. 

Oils.—Great care should always be exercised in purchasing 
lubricants. None but the best grades should be considered un¬ 
der any circumstances. The cheaper grades of oil will always 
prove to be the most expensive in the end. The ordinary farm 
machinery oils should never be used in any case as an engine 
lubricant, for in most cases they contain acids, alkalies, and 
foreign matter which will deteriorate and destroy the bear¬ 
ings of the motor. 

An oil to give the best satisfaction must be a purely mineral 
or vegetable composition which will flow freely at a tempera¬ 
ture of 33° Fahrenheit and also stand a temperature of 400° 
Fahrenheit without burning. Alw r ays choose an oil which is 
light in color as the darker oil usually contains much carbon. 

Lubrication (Lat. Lubricus, meaning slippery).—Lubrica¬ 
tion is provided on all types of automobile engines, and at 
various other places w T here moving parts come in contact or 
operate upon each other. 

Three different types of lubricating systems are found in 
common use. 

Fig. 24 shows the splash system. The oil is placed into 
the crank case and maintained at a level between two points, 
marked high and low, on a float or glass gauge at the lower 
left-hand side of the crank case. The oil is usually poured di¬ 
rectly into the crank case through a breather pipe provided 
to prevent excessive vacuum pressure. 

The lower end of the connecting rod carries a spoon or 
paddle which dips into the oil at each revolution and splashes 


4-CYCLE, 4-CYLINDERED ENGINE 41 

it to the cylinder walls and various bearing surfaces within the 
motor. 



Fig. 24. Splash Oiling 

Care of the Splash System. —This type of oiling system does 
not require any adjustments, or special care, except that the 
oil level be constantly kept between the high and low level 
marked on the gauge. 

Cleaning the Splash System. —Lubricating oils lose their 
effectiveness and become thin and watery after a certain period 
of use due to a fluid deposit called residue which remains in 
the combustion chambers after the charge of gas has been 
fired. This fluid generally works its way into the crank case, 
thinning the oil. 

The crank case should, therefore, be drained, cleaned, and 
refilled with fresh oil every fifth week or thousand miles that 
the car is driven. This will prevent much wear and give a 
quiet and satisfactory running motor. Draining and washing 
out the crank case is accomplished by removing a drain plug 
at the bottom of the crank case. The old oil is drained off and 
thrown away. Kerosene is then poured into the crank case 
through the breather pipe until it flows out of the drain clear 
in color. The plug is then replaced and the crank case re¬ 
plenished with fresh oil until the three-quarter from low level 













































































































































42 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


is reached on the gauge. The oil level should be carried as 
near this point as possible to obtain the most satisfactory 
result. 

Fig. 25 shows .the plunger or piston pump pressure system 
usually used in conjunction with the splash system. The 
oil is carried *in a reservoir at the bottom of the crank case 
and is drawn through a fine meshed screen by the oil pump, 
which is of the plunger type operated off the cam shaft. It 
forces the oil through copper tubes in the three main bear¬ 
ings. The front and center bearings have an outlet which 



furnishes the oil to the gears in front and to the troughs in 
which the connecting rods dip. The troughs have holes 
drilled to keep the level of the oil, the surplus being returned 
to the reservoir. 

There is a pipe line running from the pump to the gear 
case with a screw adjustment to regulate the oil pressure by 
turning either in or out. There is a pipe line running to a 
gauge on the dash which gives the pressure at all times. The 
cam shaft and cylinder walls get the oil by the splash from the 
connecting rods. The bottom rings of the pistons wash the 
oil back into the crank case. The overflow from the front 
















4-CYCLE, 4-CYLINDERED ENGINE 


43 


bearings falls into a small compartment immediately under 
the crank shaft gear where it is picked up by this gear and 
carried to the other gears and the bearings of the water pump 
shaft. A small oil throw washer on the pump shaft prevents 
any surplus oil from being carried out on the shaft or the 
hub of the fan drive pulley. Any overflow from the gear 
compartment is carried immediately to the splash pan where 
it provides for the splash lubrication of the connecting rod 
bearings and the cylinder walls. The dippers on the con¬ 
necting rod bearings should go Yk in. beneath the surface of 
the oil. The upward stroke of the oil pump plunger draws 
the oil through the lower ball check into the pump body and 
the downward stroke discharges it through the upper ball 
check into the body of the plunger which is hollow and has 
outlets on either side. This allows the oil to flow from the 
plunger into the by-pass in the oil pump body and then into 
the lines running to the main crank shaft bearings. The next 
upward stroke forces the oil through the lines to the main 
bearings. 

The oil pressure regulator is located on the body of the 
pump and connects to the by-pass. It consists of a hollow 
sleeve screwed into the body of the pump which has a small 
ball check held by a short coiled spring the tension of which 
determines the oil pressure. The tension and the pressure 
may be increased by turning the nut to the right. The nut 
should not be given more than one turn at a time in either 
direction as it is very sensitive. A loose main bearing will 
allow more oil to pass through it. Consequently the pressure 
registered on the oil gauge will be reduced. This will come 
about gradually. It is not advisable to attempt to adjust the 
oil pressure without first noting the condition of the main 
crank shaft bearings. 

The most common cause of failure to operate is the col¬ 
lection of dust and dirt on the sleeve at the lower end of the 
pump or from an accumulation of sediment back of the ball 
check. This needs to be cleaned from time to time. 

Force and Gravity Oiling System.—The force and gravity 


44 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


oiling system operates in much the same manner as the plunger 
pump system, except that the oil is pumped into an elevated 
tank from which it flows through lines by gravity to the vari¬ 
ous bearings. Oil pumps, however, differ in construction and 
some manufacturers use eccentric, centrifugal, and gear 
pumps. Oil pumps are very simple in construction and action 
and can be readily understood by recalling their functional 
action. 

Oil pumps rarely give any trouble, and if they fail to func¬ 
tion properly, dirt should be immediately suspected, and the 
ball valves and pipes inspected and cleaned. 


CHAPTER IV 


BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION 

A carburetor is a metering device whose function is to me¬ 
chanically blend liquid fuel with a certain amount of air to 
produce as nearly a homogeneous mixture as possible, and 
in such proportions as will result in as perfect an explosive 
mixture as can be obtained. » 

If a gas is used as a fuel it is of course not so difficult to 
obtain a homogeneous mixture due to the intimacy with which 
a gas will mechanically mix with air. This intimacy is a 
result of the minuteness of the molecules of both the gas and 
the air. With a liquid fuel, such as gasoline, however, it is 
quite different, especially with low test gasoline. If it were 
possible to completely transfer the liquid fuel into its vapor 
the latter would act as a gas and would, therefore, mix with 
the air to form a homogeneous mixture. It should be, and is, 
therefore, the aim of the carburetor designer to produce an in¬ 
strument which will atomize the fuel and break it up into 
small particles so that every minute particle of the fuel will 
be surrounded by a correct proportion of air when it is 
discharged into the intake manifold of the motor. To facili¬ 
tate the vaporization of these minute particles of fuel it is 
advisable to preheat the air taken into the carburetor, thereby 
furnishing the necessary heat units required to vaporize the 
fuel by virtue of its physical property known as its latent 
heat of evaporation. 

There is a range of proportions of air to vapor, for a 
given fuel, between which combustion will obtain. This range 
extends from that proportion known as the upper limit of 
combustion to that known as the lower limit of combustion. 
The upper limit is reached when the ratio of air to vapor is 

45 


46 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER'S GUIDE 


a maximum at which combustion will take place; that is to 
say, any addition of air in excess of this maximum will render 
the mixture non-combustible. The lower limit is reached when 
the ratio of air to vapor is a minimum at which combustion 
will take place, any decrease of air below this minimum pro¬ 
ducing a non-combustible mixture. It should be remembered 
that the limits of combustion of any fuel with air are depen¬ 
dent upon the temperature and pressure. 


Carburetor Flange 


✓Throttle Valve 

Throttle Stem 
or Shaft 


Large Venturi 


Small Venturi 


Mixture Control 
Valve or Choker 


Idle Discharge Jet 
Idle Adjustment Needle 
High Speed AdjustmentNeedle 
Float Needle 



Accelerating Well 
Idling Tube 

High Speed 
Needle Seat 

Strainer Bod/ C ^t J Coition 
Drain Plug 

Fig. 26. Stromberg Model M Carburetor—Sectional View 


Under given temperature and pressure the rate at which the 
combustible mixture will burn depends upon the ratio of air 
to vapor. This rate of burning is known as the rate of 
propagation, and it is apparent that it is desirable to obtain a 
mixture whose rate of propagation is a maximum, because the 
force of the explosion will depend upon the rapidity with 
which the entire mixture is completely ignited. 






























































































BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION 


47 


The limits of combustion of gasoline (.70 sp.gr.) can be 
taken approximately as follows: lower limit, 7 parts air (by 
weight) to 1 part gasoline, upper limit, 20 parts air to 1 part 
gasoline. 

The Stromberg Plain Tube Model M Carburetor. —A plain 
tube carburetor is one in which both the air and the gasoline 
openings are fixed in size, and in which the gasoline is metered 
automatically, without the aid of moving parts by the suction 
of air velocity past the jets. 

Fig. 2G shows a longitudinal section of a type M plain tube 
carburetor, and shows the location of the gasoline when 
the motor is at rest. The various parts are indicated by 



Fig. 27. Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Air Bleeder Action 

names and arrows. An elementary requirement of a car¬ 
buretor is that as a metering device it shall properly pro¬ 
portion the gasoline and air throughout the entire operating 
range. 

In the carburetor under discussion this mixture proportion¬ 
ing is properly maintained by the use of what is termed the 
air bled jet. Fig. 27 shows the principle of the action of the 
air bleeder. The gasoline leaves the float chamber, passes the 
point of the high speed adjusting needle, and rises through a 
verticle channel “B.” Air is taken in through the air bleeder 
“Cand discharged into the gasoline channel before the 






















48 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


latter reaches the jet holes in the small venturi tube “E.” 
The result is that the air thus taken in breaks up the flow of 
gasoline and produces a finely divided emulsion. Upon reach¬ 
ing the jet holes of the small venturi tube this emulsion is 
discharged into the high velocity air stream in the form of a 
finely divided mist. If the reader will recall how thoroughly 
a soap bubble divides itself when it bursts, he will readily 
appreciate how completely the air bled jet will atomize the 
fuel. 

Before explaining the operation of the accelerating well it 
is advisable to know the reason for its existence. Suppose 
we had a large tube such as the intake manifold of a motor 
through which air and particles of gasoline were flowing due 
to a certain suction at one end. What would be the result if 
we suddenly increased the suction ? It would be this: Due to 
the fact that air is so much lighter than gasoline, the air would 
respond almost instantly to the increased suction and its flow 
would be accelerated very suddenly, whereas the particles of 
gasoline, owing to that characteristic known as inertia, would 
not respond so rapidly, and due to its heavier weight its flow 
would not accelerate as much as the air. This would mean 
that the air would rush ahead of the gasoline particles, and the 
proportion of air to gasoline would be greater until the inertia 
forces had been overcome and the gasoline particles responded 
completely to the increased suction. This very thing will take 
place in a carburetor unless provision is made for it. That is 
to say a sudden opening of the throttle will tend toward 
producing a very lean mixture at the motor due to the lagging 
of the gasoline explained above. A lean mixture at this 
time, when acceleration is desired, ivould obviously be detri¬ 
mental to the result wanted. It is at this particular time that 
additional gasoline is most desirable in order to compensate 
for the lagging gasoline and maintain the proper mixture at 
the motor. In the Stromberg carburetor this is accomplished 
by means of the accelerating well shown in Fig. 28. The 
operation is as follows: The action is based upon the prin¬ 
ciple of the ordinary U tube. If a U tube contains a liquid, 


BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION 


49 


and if pressure is applied to one arm of the tube, or what is 
the same, if suction is applied to the other arm, it is self- 
evident that the level of the liquid will rise in the arm on 
which the suction is applied and will drop in the other arm. 
So it is in the construction of the accelerating well. Re¬ 
ferring to' the illustration, Fig. 28, the space “F” forms the 



Fig. 28. Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Accelerating Well 

one arm of the U tube, and the space “B” the other arm. 
These spaces communicate with each other through the holes 
“G” thus forming a modified form of U tube. 

When the motor is idling or retarding in speed, the ac¬ 
celerating well or space “F” fills with gasoline. Now when 
the throttle is opened, thereby increasing the suction in the 




































50 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


venturi tube, the following takes place: atmospheric pressure 
at the bleeder “C” exerts itself on the gasoline in the space 
“F” forcing the liquid down to join the regular flow from 
“H” and passing up the space “B” and out into the high 
velocity air stream through the small venturi tube. While the 
well acts the flow of gasoline is more than double the normal 
rate of flow, thereby compensating for the lagging of the 
gasoline referred to previously. 

Upon close observation it will be noticed that there is a 
series of small holes down the wall of the well. Referring 
to the analogy of the U tube, these holes directly connect the 
two arms of the U tube. It is obvious that the smaller and 
fewer these holes, the faster will the well empty, due to the 
U tube suction, and the larger and more these holes, the slower 
will the well empty. It is therefore apparent that the rate of 
discharge of the well can be regulated as required by different 
motors, different grades of gasoline, different altitudes, etc., 
by inserting wells of different drillings. The action of the 
well is also dependent upon the size of the hole in the bleeder 
“C” because it is the relative area of this hole in the bleeder 
as compared to the area of the holes in the well which de¬ 
termine the rate at which the well will empty. 

The foregoing characteristics of the model M carburetor 
have dealt more with the open throttle or high speed opera¬ 
tion. We shall now consider the operation when the motor 
is idling. Earlier types of carburetors, when high test and 
very volatile gasoline was employed, were designed with a 
mixing chamber in which the gasoline, after being discharged 
from the nozzle, would mix with the air and evaporate very 
freely. Present day gasoline, however, is considerably heav¬ 
ier and very much less volatile, and we therefore cannot de¬ 
pend upon its volatility to accomplish its vaporization. 

Fig. 29 shows the arrangement and idling operation of the 
model M Stromberg carburetor. Concentric and inside of the 
passage “B” is located the idling tube “J.” When the motor 
is idling, that is, when the throttle is practically closed, the 
action which takes place is as follows: the gasoline leaves the 


BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETIOR 


51 


float chamber, passes through the passage “H” into the idling 
tube through the hole “I,” thence up through the idling tube 



Fig. 29. Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Idling Operation 

“J” to the idling jet “L.” Air is drawn through the hole 
“K” and mixes with the gasoline to form a finely divided 































































52 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


emulsion which passes on to the jet “L.” It will be noted 
that this jet directs the gasoline-air emulsion into the mani¬ 
fold just above the lip of the throttle valve. Inasmuch as this 
throttle valve is practically closed the vacuum created at 
the entrance of the jet “L” is very high and exceeds 8 pounds 
per square inch. It is obvious, therefore, with this condition 
existing, that the gasoline will be drawn into the manifold in a 
highly atomized condition. It is w T ell to call attention here to 



the fact that the low speed adjusting screw “F” operates a 
needle valve which controls the amount of air which passes 
through the hole “K,” and it is the position of this needle 
valve which determines the idling mixture. 

As the throttle is slightly opened from the idling position 
a suction is created in the throat of the small venturi tube as 
well as at the idling jet. When idling the suction is greater 
at the idling jet, and when the throttle is open the suction is 
greater at the small venturi tube. At some intermediate posi- 






















































































BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION 


53 


tion of the throttle there is a time when the suction at the 
idling jet is equal to that at the small venturi, and, therefore, 
at this particular time the gasoline will follow both channels 
to the manifold. This condition which is illustrated in Fig. 
30 lasts but a very short while, because as the throttle is 
opened wider the suction at the small venturi tube rapidly 
becomes greater than that at the idling jet. The result is 
that the idling tube and idling jet are thrown entirely out of 



Fig. 31. Stromberg Carburetor—Throttle Wide Open 


action, the level of the gasoline in the idling tube dropping 
as illustrated in Fig. 31, where the throttle is shown to be 
wide open, in which case all of the gasoline enters the mani¬ 
fold by way of the holes in the small venturi tube. 

It will be remembered that at this position of the throttle 
the accelerating well has emptied, and therefore there is a 
direct passage for air from the bleeder to the gasoline in the 
main passage giving the air bleed jet feature explained be¬ 
fore. This is being mentioned again in order to call attention 




























































































54 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


to the fact that care should be taken not to use too large a 
bleeder, because the air which enters through the bleeder 
partly determines the mixture, and if the bleeder hole is too 
large the mixture is very apt to be too lean at high speeds. 

Fig. 32 shows an exterior photograph of one of the type 
M Stromberg carburetor. Before discussing the installation 
and adjusting of this carburetor it will be well to say a few 
words concerning the use of the venturi tube and its con¬ 
struction. 

The object in using the venturi tube in carburetor design 
is to produce a maximum air velocity at the jet and at the 
same time not cause undue restriction. This high air velocity 
creates the suction necessary to properly atomize the gasoline. 
The use of the double venturi tube construction has developed 
the best possible results. In this construction the mouth of 
the smaller venturi tube is located at the throat of the larger 
one, and with this arrangement the highest degree of atomiza¬ 
tion is attainable, and at the same time the air restriction is 
held down to a minimum. 

In order that any carburetor may do justice to what is 
claimed for it, it is absolutely essential that the motor on 
which it is installed is in good condition in other respects 
because, besides poor carburetion, there are numerous things 
about an internal combustion engine which will cause its poor 
operation. Therefore, assuming that the following conditions 
exist, we can proceed with the installation of the carburetor 
and after adjusting it we can expect very good results as to 
the operation of the motor. 

1. The ignition should be properly timed so that with a 
retarded spark the explosion takes place when the piston of 
the cylinder in which the explosion occurs is at its upper dead 
center. 

2. The inlet and exhaust valves should be so timed that they 
open and close at the proper time during the cycle. In this 
respect a motor is usually timed when it comes from the 
manufacturer. 

3. The valves should be ground in so that they form a per- 


BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION 


55 


feet seal with the valve seat. Any accumulation of carbon on 
the upper part of the exhaust should be removed so as to pre¬ 
vent the valve stem from sticking- in the guide and thereby not 
permitting the valve to close upon its seat. 

4. Any undue wear of the valve stem guides should be cor¬ 
rected because the clearance between the stem and the walls 
of the guide will permit air to be drawn up into the motor 
thus ruining the mixture from the carburetor. Similarly any 
leaky flange at any joint along the intake system will produce 
the same detrimental result. 



5. All piston rings should be tight and leak proof in order 
to insure good and even compression in all the cylinders. 
Without good and even compression in all the cylinders it is 
impossible to obtain the maximum power from the motor, and 
it is also impossible to obtain good idling of the motor. 

6. It should be seen that the ignition system is delivering a 
spark to each spark plug without missing. 

7. The spark plugs should be clean, and the accumulation 
of carbon on the inside of the plug should not be sufficient to 
cause fouling or short-circuiting of the plug. In the case of 



























56 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


a short circuited plug it is impossible to obtain a spark at 
the end of the high tension cable, but this does not indicate 
that the plug is firing. For best results the gap of the spark 
plug should never be less than .020" nor more than .032". 
A good setting is at about .025". 

The foregoing constitute some of the more important 
troubles to look for when the motor is not performing satis¬ 
factorily. 

Installation and Adjusting.—We are finally ready to pro¬ 
ceed with instructions for installing and adjusting Model M 
carburetors. 

1. Try the throttle lever and the air horn lever by moving 
same with the hand before the carburetor is installed, and be 
sure that the butterfty valves are open to the limit when the 
respective levers come in contact with their stops. Also be 
sure that when the throttle valve is closed, the lower side of the 
butterfly is adjacent to the hole through which the idling jet 
projects. 

2. Prepare a paper gasket about .020" thick to fit the flange 
of the carburetor. Shellac same and then attach the carbu¬ 
retor to the flange of the intake manifold very securely by 
means of proper cap screws. 

The attaching of the gasoline line, hot-air stove, hot air 
flexible tubing, and choke control need not be discussed in de¬ 
tail as these installations are very simple. 

After having properly installed the carburetor on the mo¬ 
tor, turn both the high and low speed adjusting screws, A and 
B, completely down clockwise so that the needle valves just 
touch their respective seats. Then unscrew (anti-clockwise) 
the high speed adjusting screw A about three turns off the 
seat, and turn the low speed adjusting screw B anti-clock¬ 
wise about one and one-half turns off the seat. These settings 
are not to be considered as final adjustments of the carburetor. 
They are merely to be taken as starting points because the 
motor will run freely with these settings. 

After the motor has been started, permit it to run long 
enough to become thoroughly warm then make the high speed 


BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION 


57 


adjustment. Advance the spark to the position for normal 
running 1 . Advance the gas throttle until the motor is running 
at approximately 750 r. p. m. Then turn down on the high 
speed screw A gradually notch by notch until a slowing down 
of the motor is observed. Then turn up or open the screw 
anti-clockwise until the motor runs at the highest rate of 
speed for that particular setting of the throttle. 

To make the low speed adjustment B proceed as follows: 
Retard the spark fully and close the throttle as far as pos¬ 
sible without causing the motor to come to a stop. If upon 
idling the motor tends to roll or load it is an indication that 
the mixture is too rich and therefore the low speed screw B 
should be turned away from the seat anti-clockwise, thereby 
permitting more air to enter into the idling mixture. It is 
safe to say that the best idling results will be obtained when the 
screw B is not much more or less than one and one-half turns 
off the seat. 

After satisfactory adjustments have been made with the 
motor vehicle stationary, it is most important and advisable 
to take the vehicle out on the road for further observation and 
finer adjustments. If upon rather sudden opening of the 
throttle the motor backfires, it is an indication that the high 
speed mixture is too lean, and in this case the high speed screw 
A should be opened one notch at a time until the tendency to 
backfire ceases. On the other hand if when running along with 
throttle open, the motor rolls or loads, it is an indication that 
the mixture is too rich, and this condition is overcome by turn¬ 
ing the high speed screw A down (clockwise) until this loading 
is eliminated. 

STROMBERG MODEL L CARBURETOR 

There are three adjustments; the high speed, the extremely 
low speed or idle, and the “economizer.” 

The high speed is controlled by the knurled nut “A” which 
locates the position of the needle “E” past whose point is 
taken all the gasoline at all speeds. Turning nut “A” to the 


58 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


right (clockwise) raises the needle “E” and gives more gaso¬ 
line, to the left, or anticlockwise, less. 

If an entirely new adjustment is necessary, use the following 
practice. Put economizer “L” in the 5th notch (or farthest 
from float chamber) as an indicator, turn nut “A” to the left, 
anticlockwise, until needle “E” reaches its seat, as shown by 
nut “A” not moving when throttle is opened and closed. 



W T hen needle “E” is in its seat it can be felt to stick slightly 
when nut “A” is lifted with the fingers. Find adjustment of 
“A” where it just begins to move with the throttle opening, 
then give 24 notches to the right or clockwise (the notches can 
be felt). Then move the economizer pointer “L” back to the 
0 notch (toward float chamber). This will give a rich ad¬ 
justment. After starting and warming up the motor, thin 
out the mixture by turning “A” anticlockwise, and find the 








































































BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION 


59 


point where the motor responds best to quick opening of the 
throttle, and shows the best power. 

The gasoline for low speed is taken in above the throttle 
through a jet at “K” and is regulated by dilution with air as 
controlled by the low speed adjusting screw “B.” Screwing 
“B” in clockwise gives more gasoline; outward, less. The 
best adjustment is usually V 2 to 3 turns outward from a 
seating position. Note that this is only an idling adjustment 
and does not effect the mixture above 8 miles per hour. When 
motor is idling properly there should be a steady hiss in the 
carburetor; if there is a weak cylinder or manifold leak, or 
if the idle adjustment is very much too rich, the hiss will be 
unsteady. 

The economizer device operates to lean out the mixture by 
lowering the high speed needle “E” and nut “A” a slight but 
definitely regulated amount at throttle positions corresponding 
to speeds from 5 to 40 miles per hour. The amount of drop 
and consequent leaning is regulated by the pointer “L.” 

After making the high speed adjustment for best power, 
with pointer “L” in 0 notch, as above described, place throttle 
lever on steering wheel to a position giving about 20 miles 
per hour road speed. Then move pointer “L” clockwise (away 
from float chamber), one notch at a time, till motor begins to 
slow down. Then come back one notch. 

The amount of economizer action needed depends upon the 
grade of gasoline and upon the temperature. 

In the mid-west the best economizer adjustment will usually 
be the third or fourth notch. With Pennsylvania gasoline and 
in the South, the 2nd notch; while on the Pacific coast no 
economizer is necessary unless distillate (which should not 
be below 59 degrees Baume) is used. Also fewer notches 
economizer action will be necessary in summer than in winter. 


CHAPTER V 


“NITRO”-SUNDERMAN CARBURETOR 

Fig. 34 shows a through section of the new “Nitro”-Sunder- 
man carburetor. This is practically a new model presented 
to the automobile industry for 1919 and 1920. It is claimed 
that it is an exact fulfillment of the long sought method of 



accurate compensation. It is of the single plain tube design 
with a single gasoline nozzle in the shape of a mushroom 
placed in the center of the air passage. Around this nozzle, 
however, rests the floating venturi which is a large end and 

GO 























































































































“NITRO”-SUNDERMAN CARBURETOR 


61 


small center floating air tube seen in Fig. 35 which hurries 
the air at low speeds and checks the rush at high velocities. 
Fig. 35 shows the commencement of action at idling speeds, 
and as the gasoline for idling comes from the same nozzle 
which furnishes the maximum power, an air by-pass is pro¬ 
vided to reduce the suction on the nozzle at low speeds. The 
one single adjustment on this type of carburetor is shown 
at (X) in Fig. 36, and is used only to control the passage 



of air through the by-pass at idling or low speeds. In Fig. 
34 the engine’s demand has increased to a point where the 
suction is greater than the weight of the venturi, which 
causes it to rise on the air stream, and open up the air pas¬ 
sage around the head of the nozzle. This allows the com¬ 
pensation for the correct ratios of the air and gasoline mix¬ 
tures. 

In Fig. 37 the venturi closes the air by-pass and under full 
suction, gives the maximum area around the nozzle for leaner 
mixtures and full volumetric. The unrestricted air passage 



















62 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


in the plain tube type of carburetor is here worked out to its 
fullest development. 

The Venturi.—Tliis is a stream line air passage tapered 
to a narrow throat near the center which increases the veloci¬ 
ties without offering a restriction to the free air passage, 
and being of a very loose fit in the carburetor, is allowed to 
float up and down on the air stream around the nozzle over 



Fig. 36. Sunderman Carburetor 


which it automatically centers at all times. The venturi goes 
into action slowly as it is retarded by the action of the air by¬ 
pass, but rises fast when the latter is cut off. It rides on the 
air stream at a perfect balance and offers no resistance to 
the air passage because of its stream line taper, and as the 
venturi float is sensitive to a fine degree, it is ready for any 
change in the motor suction and compensates accordingly. 
The jet tube running up into the mushroom head contains 
a jet which is drilled for the particular requirements of the 
motor on which the carburetor is installed. This jet feeds 
into the mushroom head which is drilled with four small 
holes which spread the gasoline by capillary action in a fine 
fan film to all sides of the under surfaces of the slot. Here 


















“NITRO”-SUNDERMAN CARBURETOR 


C3 


the ascending air picks it off at right angles to its path in 
a very fine vapor. This vapor is carried up the stream line 
venturi without cross currents and is in a finely mixed state 
of flame-propagation. The heavier fuels are readily broken 



Fig. 37. Sunderman Carburetor 


up with this nozzle and straight kerosene has been used with 
success. This carburetor does not require any other care 
than a thorough cleaning out once or twice in a season. 


THE SCHEBLER MODEL “R” CARBURETOR 

Fig. 38 shows a section view of operation and adjustment 
on the model “R” Schebler carburetor. This carburetor is 
designed for use on both four and six cylindered motors. 
It is of the single jet raised needle type, automatic in action, 
the air valve controlling the needle valve through a lever¬ 
age arrangement. This leverage attachment automatically 
proportions the amount of gasoline and air mixture at all 
speeds. This type of carburetor has but two adjustments. 
The low speed adjustment which is made by turning the air 
valve cap and an adjustment on the air valve spring for 















64 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


changing its tension. (A) shows the air valve adjusting cap. 
(B) is the dash control leverage attachment. (C) is the air 
valve and jet valve connection. (D) is the boss that raises 
the jet valve needle and lowers the spring tension on the air 



valve giving a rich mixture in starting. The needle valve 
seats in E and controls the nozzle spray. (F) is the air 
valve spring tension adjusting screw. 

Model R Adjustment.—To adjust this carburetor turn the 
air valve cap to the right until it stops, then to the left one 
complete turn, start the motor with the throttle % open; after 
it is warmed up turn the air valve cap to the left until the 
motor hits perfectly. Advance throttle % on quadrant. If 
the engine backfires turn screw (F) up, increasing the tension 
on the air spring until acceleration is satisfactory. 




























































CHAPTER VI 


THE STEWART CARBURETOR 

Fig. 39 shows the Stewart carburetor used on Dodge 
Brothers cars, which is of the float feed type in which a 
fine spray of gasoline is drawn from an aspirating tube by 
a current of air induced by the engine pistons. The supply 
of gasoline being regulated by a float which actuates a needle 
valve controlling the outlet of the feed pipe. This tube is 
also called the spray nozzle. This type of carburetor is com¬ 
monly used on automobile engines. 

It consists of a float chamber containing a float, functions 
of which are described below, a mixing chamber in which the 
gasoline spray is reduced to vapor and mixed with air (i. e., 
“carbureted” in proper proportion). 

The float and valve maintain a constant or even supply 
of gasoline for the carburetor. 

The gasoline flows from the filter Z into the float chamber 
C through the inlet valve G, which is directly actuated by the 
float F, so that it closes or opens as the float rises or falls. 
As the float rises the valve is closed until the float reaches 
a certain predetermined level, at which the valve is entirely 
closed. If the float falls below this level because of a dimin¬ 
ishing supply of gasoline in the float chamber, the valve is 
automatically opened and sufficient fresh gasoline is admitted 
to bring the level up to the proper point. From the forego¬ 
ing it will be seen that the float chamber in reality serves as 
a reservoir of constant supply, in which any pressure to which 
the gasoline has been subjected in order to force it from the 
tank is eliminated. When the engine is running gasoline is, 
of course, being constantly drawn off from the float chamber 
through the aspirating tube L, as will be described later, to 

65 


06 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


meet the requirements of the motor, but in practice the re¬ 
sulting movement of the,inlet valve is very slight and hence 
the flow of gasoline into the float chamber is nearly constant. 
The gasoline inlet valve is also called the “needle valve.” 



Fig. 39. Stewart Carburetor 

Between the float chamber C and the engine connection of 
the carburetor is an enclosed space called the mixing chamber 
0. This compartment is provided with a valve for the in¬ 
gress of free air. 















































































THE STEWART CARBURETOR 


67 


Extending into the mixing chamber from a point below 
the surface of the gasoline in the float chamber is a passage, 
L for gasoline, ending with a nozzle, so constructed that gaso¬ 
line drawn through it will come forth in a very fine spray. 
This is called the aspirating tube, atomizer, or more com¬ 
monly, the spray nozzle. 

The air inlet AA to the mixing chamber on the carburetor 
used on the Dodge is in the shape of a large tube extend¬ 
ing from the carburetor to a box on the exhaust manifold. 
Air supplied from this source is heated in order that vapor¬ 
ization of gasoline may be more readily accomplished. 

A cold air regulator is interposed between this tube and the 
carburetor proper so that in hot weather cool air may be ad¬ 
mitted. This should always be closed when the temperature 
of the atmosphere is below 60 F. 

The action of the carburetor is as follows: The suction 
created by the downward stroke of the pistons draws air into 
the mixing chamber through the air ducts (drilled holes I1H). 
The same suction draws a fine spray of gasoline through the 
aspirating tube L (spray nozzle) into the same compart¬ 
ment, and the air, becoming impregnated with the gasoline 
vapor thus produced, becomes a highly explosive gas. In 
order that the proportion of air and gasoline vapor may be 
correct for all motor speeds, provision is made by means of 
a valve A for the automatic admission of larger quantities 
of both at high motor speeds. The ducts are open at all 
times, but the valve is held to its seat by its weight until the 
suction, increasing as the motor speed increases, is sufficient 
to lift it and admit a greater volume of air. The valve A 
is joined to the tube L, hence the latter is raised when the 
valve is lifted and the ingress of proportionately larger quan- 
ities of gasoline is made possible. This is accomplished by 
means of a metering pin P normally stationary, projecting 
upward into the tube L. The higher the tube rises the smallei 
is the section of the metering pin even with its opening, and 
hence the greater is the quantity of gasoline which may be 
taken into the tube. The carburetor thus automatically pro- 


68 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


duces the correct mixture and quantity for all motor speeds. 

The metering pin is subject to control from the dash, as 
will be explained later, by means of a rack N, and pinion M. 
To change the fixed running position of the pin, turn the stop 
screw to the right or left. Turning this screw to the right 
lowers the position of the metering pin and turning it to 
the left raises it. As the pin is lowered more gasoline is 
admitted to the aspirating tube at a given motor speed, thus 
enriching the mixture. 

A wider range of adjustment of the position of the meter¬ 
ing pin may be had by releasing the clamp of the pinion 
shaft lever and changing its position with relation to the 
shaft. This should never be attempted by any save experts 
in this class of work. 

The carburetor used on the Dodge Brothers car is so nearly 
automatic in its action that it is not effected by climatic con¬ 
ditions, or changes in altitude or temperature. It automati¬ 
cally adjusts itself to all variations of atmosphere. It is, 
therefore, wise to see if the causes of any troubles which 
may develop are not due to derangements elsewhere than at 
the carburetor before attempting any changes of its adjust¬ 
ment. 

Make all adjustments with dash adjustment all the way in. 

The metering pin should not be tampered with unless abso¬ 
lutely necessary. 

If replacement of this pin should become necessary, it may 
be accomplished as follows: First, remove the cap nut at 
the bottom of the rack and pinion housing. Next, turn pinion 
shaft slowly from right to left (facing toward the carburetor) 
until the bottom of the metering pin appears at the bottom 
of the pinion shaft housing. Continue to turn the shaft 
slowly in the same direction, releasing the connection to the 
dash control if necessary, until the rack to which the pin is 
fastened drops out. The palm of the hand should be held 
to receive this as the parts are very loosely assembled. The 
pinion shaft should be retained at the exact position at which 
the rack is released. Install a new metering pin, the way to 


THE STEWART CARBURETOR 


69 


do this will be obvious, and return the rack to its proper 
mesb with the pinion. Replace dash attachment (if detached), 
replace cap, adjust per instructions given on previous page. 

The loose assembling of the metering pin in the rack is 
for the purpose of providing for freedom of movement of the 
metering pin and in order that binding in the aspirating 
tube may be avoided. 

The gasoline filter is installed on the carburetor at a 
point where the fuel pipe is connected. 

The pressure within the gasoline tank forces the fuel 
through the pipe, through the filter screen (ZO in the filter) 
and thence out through the opening to the carburetor. 

The filter cap CC may be removed by turning the flanged 
nut on the bottom of carburetor to the left, thus releasing the 
inlet fitting. 

The filter screen or strainer should occasionally be cleaned. 
This may be readily accomplished by removing the filter cap 
to which the screen is attached. 

The filter should be screwed up tight when replaced. 


CHAPTER VII 


THE CARTER CARBURETOR 

Fig. 40 shows the Carter carburetor which embodies a 
radically new principal. It belongs to the multiple-jet type, 
but posseses this striking difference, variations in fuel level 
are utilized to determine the number of jets in action at any 



Fig. 40—Carter Carburetor 


time. The variations in fuel level occur in a vertical tube 
known as the “stand pipe.” They take place in instant re¬ 
sponse to the slightest change in the suction exerted by the 
engine. As this suction depends directly on the engine’s 
speed, it can clearly be seen that this provides a marvelously 

















































THE CARTER CARBURETOR 


71 


sensitive means of automatic control. A large number of ex¬ 
ceedingly small jets are bored spirally around the upjoer por¬ 
tion of this tube. As a result, the level at which the fuel 
stands within it, determines the number of jets from which 
delivery is being made at any instant and the gasoline supply 
is always directly proportioned to the engine speed, however 
suddenly changes in speed take place. Owing to the com¬ 
paratively large number of these jets, their exceedingly small 
size, and their correspondingly short range of action, the 
flow of fuel is absolutely uninterrupted. 

The instrument is permanently adjusted for low and inter¬ 
mediate speeds at the time of installation. An auxiliary air 
valve controlled from dash or steering post forms the high 
speed adjustment as well as affording a means of securing 
absolute uniformity of mixture under widely varying condi¬ 
tions of weather, temperature, or altitude, directly from the 
driver’s seat. A simple method of enabling each cylinder 
to such a rich priming charge direct from the float chamber 
is another valuable feature that obviates all need of priming 
and insures easy starting in the coldest winter weather. 


CHAPTER VIII 


THE SCHEBLER PLAIN TUBE CARBURETOR MODEL 

“FORD A” 


The Pilot tube principle is introduced for the first time in 
the carburetor and this Pilot tube or improved type of gaso- 



Fig. 41. Schebler Carburetor 

D-CHOKER OR SHUTTER IN AIR 

BEND. 

BE—LEVERS CLOSING CHOKER, 
OPERATED FROM STEERING 
COLUMN AND FRONT OF 
RADIATOR. 

II—LOW SPEED GASOLINE AD¬ 
JUSTING NEEDLE. 


Model Ford A—Sectional View 
I—HIGH SPEED GASOLINE AD 
JUSTING NEEDLE. 

Iv—IDLE AND LOW SPEED BY 
PASS. 

M—ACCELERATION WELL. 

P—PILOT OPENING. 


line nozzle is so designed or built that it automatically 
furnishes a rich mixture for acceleration and thins out this 

72 



















































































THE SCHEBLER PLAIN TUBE CARBURETOR 73 


mixture after the normal motor speed has been reached. 
This furnishes a very economical running mixture at all motor 
speeds, together with a smooth and positive acceleration. 

The importance of this Pilot tube or nozzle principle can¬ 
not be over emphasized, as it furnishes a flexible, powerful 
and economical mixture, without the addition of any com¬ 
plicated parts. The Ford “A” carburetor has no parts to 
wear or get out of adjustment. 



Fig. 42. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A—Adjustment Points 


Two gasoline needle adjustments are furnished. One for 
low speed and idling and one for high speed. These adjust¬ 
ments have been found advisable and necessary to properly 
handle the present heavy grades of fuel and the variations in 
the motor due to wear, etc. Those. adjustments also insure 
the attaining of the widest range of motor speed. 

A double choker is furnished, and with these controls the 
Ford can be easily started under the most severe weather 
conditions and the mixture controlled from the driver's seat. 

With the Ford “A" carburetor a low speed of four to five 














74 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


miles an hour can be secured without any loading or missing. 
Also, with this carburetor the maximum speed and power of 
the motor are obtained. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSTALLING AND ADJUSTING THE SCHEBLER FORD 

“a” CARBURETOR 

First, remove the Ford carburetor from the manifold, also 
the dash board control, the hot air drum, and tubing, and the 
radiator choke wire. Be sure to save the cotter pin used in 
the throttle control. 

Install the Schebler carburetor, using gasket and cap screws 
which are furnished with the equipment. The gasoline con¬ 
nection is the same as regularly furnished on the Ford equip¬ 
ment and no other connections are necessary. Screw the con¬ 
nections on the Ford gasoline line onto the connection fur¬ 
nished on the carburetor. Attach the hot air drum and the 
tubing to the exhaust manifold and run the choke wire through 
the radiator. 

Before adjusting carburetor, see that the spark plugs are 
clean and set about .035, or nearly the thickness of a new 
dime. See that the compression is good and equal on all 
four cylinders. See that the timer is clean and in good shape, 
as an occasional miss is due to the roller in the timer becom¬ 
ing worn. Also, be sure that there is no leak in the intake 
manifold. 

The steering post control must be set so that the tubing is 
fastened into set screw (A) and the control wire is fastened 
through the binding post in lever (B) with steering post 
control or plunger pushed clear in and the butterfly shutter 
(D) in the hot air horn or bend open, so that when the 
plunger control is pulled out the wire (C) in the binding 
post (B) on lever closes the shutter (D) almost completely. 
This w T ill furnish a rich mixture for starting and warming 
up the motor under normal weather conditions. 

The wire running to the front of the radiator must be at¬ 
tached to lever (E) so that when the motor is cold, the 
shutter (D) can be closed tight, thus insuring positive start- 


THE SCHEBLER PLAIN TUBE CARBURETOR 75 


ing\ However, this wire must be released immediately upon 
starting the motor or the motor will be choked by excess of 
gasoline. 

To start the motor, open low speed needle (H) and high 
speed needle fl) about four or five complete turns. You 
will note that the needles have dials which indicate turn¬ 
ing needle to the right cuts down the gasoline supply. 

Pull out steering post control, open throttle about one- 
quarter way, retard the spark, pull out radiator choke wire 
which will close shutter and crank the motor. After motor 
is started, immediately release radiator choke wire and gradu¬ 
ally push in the steering post control or plunger and let the 
motor run until it is warmed up. Then first adjust the high 
speed needle (I) until the motor runs smoothly and evenly 
with retarded spark. Close throttle part way and adjust idle 
needle until motor runs smoothly at low speed. 

In order to get the desired low throttle running, use the 
throttle stop screw (L) which will control the throttle open¬ 
ing and give you the desired low speed running. 

A strainer is furnished on the carburetor which prevents 
dirt or sediment getting into the bowl of the carburetor and 
choking up the gasoline nozzle or causing flooding. 


CHAPTER IX 


KEROSENE CARBURETORS 

Experiments have been carried on for quite some time 
pertaining to the development of a more successful carburetor 
which will bum the heavier fuels. The chief difficulty en¬ 
countered is to find a more suitable way to vaporize these low 
grade fuels. 

Kerosene can be used, only with an application of heat 
to the manifold to aid in the evaporation of the heavier parts 
of this fuel. The exhaust pipes are available for this source 
of heat, but as there is no heat from this source until the 
engine is running, it is necessary to start the engine on gaso¬ 
line and switch over to the heavier fuels after the warming- 
up process. 

Pig. 43 shows the Holley kerosene carburetor which is 
adaptable to any type of engine by making simple changes in 



76 



























































KEROSENE CARBURETORS 


77 


the exhaust manifold to include the heating coil tube. This 
carburetor will operate successfully on any hydro-carbon fuel 
with a boiling point below 600° F. Two float chambers are 
provided to take care of the starting and running fuels. The 
engine is started on the gasoline part of the carburetor and 
after a short warming-up period the feed is switched to the 
kerosene part of the device. 

The principle upon which this device operates is to pro¬ 
vide a primary mixture by means of a needle valve and 



Fig. 44. Holley Kerosene Carburetor Installment 


a very small aspirating jet which gives a mixture that is 
too rich for combustion. This rich mixture of atomized fuel 
is carried through a coil tube of very thin wall thickness, 
which is exposed to the exhaust gases, directly in the exhaust 
manifold. 

The temperature in this coil tube reaches as high as 500 
degrees F. The globules of the over rich mixture are broken 
up here and flow directly into the mixing chamber, where ad¬ 
ditional air enters, diluting the mixture to make it combustible. 
The opening of the air valve is controlled by the suction 

























































78 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


of the engine and by the throttle valve. The shifter valve for 
changing the operation from gasoline to kerosene is conven¬ 
iently arranged for dash control, when the engine becomes 
warm. A primer is arranged in the manifold just above the 
carburetor and aids in cold weather starting. 

Fig. 44 shows the installation of the Holley kerosene 
carburetor. In this case it was necessary to add a compart¬ 
ment on the exhaust manifold to contain and heat the coil 
tube. There are some details that must be taken care of on 
installation. A small auxilliary tank must be provided to 
hold the gasoline for starting, while a larger tank must be 
provided to carry the main supply of kerosene. 

The adjustments of this t 3 7 pe of carburetor is through a 
needle valve located in each fuel chamber, and as it is im¬ 
possible to give any set adjustment that would apply to the 
many different types of motors, the proper adjustment must 
be worked out. This is done by shifting to the gasoline and 
turning the needle valve to the right and left and noting the 
point at which the engine runs the smoothest. The needle 
valve is then set at this point. The fuel shifter valve is 
turned to feed the kerosene, and this adjustment is made in 
the same manner. 


I 


v 


CHAPTER X 


HEATED MANIFOLDS AND HOT SPOTS 

Heat added to the manifold is the probable solu¬ 
tion of the present low-test fuel supplied to the motor¬ 
ist. In the first place you may be satisfied if your motor 
runs and does not give any noticeable loss of power. But 
the question is, are you getting full power out of your motor 
in accordance with the amount of fuel consumed? And are 
you getting the proper amount of mileage out of each gal¬ 
lon? The answer to both questions would probably be in the 
negative, if both questions were taken up individually by 
owners. 



One of the best solutions, if not the best, is the new hot¬ 
spot manifold used on the Liberty engine, which was designed 
for Army use. Fig 45 shows the hot-spot Liberty engine 
manifold. The intake manifold is external but short, there¬ 
fore does not offer much opportunity for the liquid to con¬ 
dense. From the carburetor it rises up straight to a point 
well above the valve ports and the cylinder blocks, and at 
the top of the rise it touches the exhaust pipe and divides, 

79 






































80 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 



the two branches sweeping downward quite clear of the ex¬ 
haust manifold to each block of cylinders. About three inches 
of the intake passage is exposed to the exhaust manifold top. 

The advantage of this design is that the heating element 
affects practically only the liquid fuel and does not have 
much effect on the fuel already vaporized. Naturally the 
liquid fuel is heavier than the vapor, and as the mixture 


Fig. 46. Holley Vapor Manifold—Ford Cars 

rushes up the manifold at a high rate of speed and turns to 
the right or left, the heavier liquid particles' are thrown 
straight against the hot-spot, where they are boiled off in 
vapor. 

Thus, although the total amount of heat supplied to the 
incoming charge is small, vaporization is good, since pains 
have been taken to supply the heat where it is needed. 

Fig. 46 shows the Holley vapor manifold for Ford cars 





















































HEATED MANIFOLDS AND HOT SPOTS 


81 


which is intended to completely vaporize gasoline by apply¬ 
ing heat at the proper point. As will be noted by the arrows, 
the exhaust gases pass dow T n, striking a hot-spot at the top 
of the internal intake passage. The exhaust gases flow along 
this passage and finally pass out at the bottom. The heavier 
particles of fuel, after leaving the carburetor, strike against 
the wall at point (A) and there are broken up by the exhaust 
gases. Should any of the globules not be broken up at this 
point, they will be vaporized when they strike the hot-spot 
at (B) as this is directly in contact wflth the exhaust gases. 
It will be noted that the heavier globules are subjected to a 
rising temperature. Starting at (A) and finishing at (B) a 
control valve regulates the amount of heat supplied to the 
intake manifold. 


CHAPTER XI 


COOLING SYSTEMS 
Type, Operation and Care 

Cooling systems are provided on all types of gasoline en¬ 
gines. As the heat generated by the constant explosions in 
the cylinders would soon overheat and ruin the engine were 
it not cooled by some artificial means. 

Circulation Systems.—There are two types of water cir¬ 
culating systems. The Thermo Syphon, and the Force Pump 
circulating systems. 



Fig. 47 shows how the water circulates in the Thermo- 
Syphon system. It acts on the principal that hot water seeks 
a higher level than cold water, consequently when the water 
reaches a certain temperature, approximately 1S0° F., circu¬ 
lation commences and the water flows from the lowest radiator 

82 


























COOLING SYSTEMS 


83 


outlet pipe up through the water jackets into the upper 
radiator water tank, and down through the thin tubes to the 
lower tank to repeat the process. 

The heat is extracted from the water by its passage through 
the thin metal tubing of the radiator to which are attached 
scientifically worked out fins which assist in the rapid radia¬ 
tion of the heat. The fan just back of the radiator sucks 
the air through the small tubes which connect the upper and 
lower radiator tanks. The air is also driven through between 
these tubes by the forward movement of the car. 

The Force Pump Circulation System.—The Force Pump 
circulating system is constructed in the same manner as the 
Thermo Syphon Cooling System. The only difference in the 
two systems is that a small pump is attached to the lower 
radiator pipe to force the circulation of the water. 

The pump is usually of the centrifugal type and consists 
of a fan-shaped wheel operated in a snugly fitted housing. 
The water enters at the hub and is thrown out against the 
housing and is forced on by the rapid action of the fan 
blades. Another type of pump is used by some manufac¬ 
turers which consist of two meshed gears of the same size, 
which operate in a snugly fitted housing. These gears operate 
in a direction toward each other, the water is carried for¬ 
ward or upward in the space between the teeth, and is forced 
on when the teeth mesh and fill the space. 

Overheating.—Overheating may be caused by carbonized 
cylinders, too much driving on low speed, not enough or a 
poor grade of lubricating oil, spark retarded too far, racing 
the engine, clogged muffler, poor carburetor adjustment, a 
broken or slipping fan belt, jammed radiator tube, leaky con¬ 
nection, or low water. 

Radiator Cleaning.—The entire circulation system should 
be thoroughly cleaned occasionally. A good cleaning solu¬ 
tion is made by dissolving one-half pound of baking soda in 
three and one-half to four gallons of soft water. The 
radiator is filled with the solution and left to stand for twenty 
to thirty minutes. The hose is then removed from the lower 


84 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


pipe, water is then turned into the radiator through the filler 
spout until the system is thoroughly flushed out. 

Freezing.— Unless an anti-freezing solution is used through 
the cold months you are bound to experience trouble. The 
circulation does not commence properly until the water be¬ 
comes heated. It is apt to freeze at low temperatures before 
circulation commences. In case any of the small tubes are 
plugged or jammed they are bound to freeze and burst open 
if the driver attempts to get along without a non-freezing 
solution. 

Freezing Solution. —Wood or denatured alcohol can be used 
to a good advantage. The following table gives the freezing 
point of solutions containing different percentages of alcohol. 

20% solution freezes at 15° above zero. 

30% solution freezes at 8° below zero. 

50% solution freezes at 34° below zero. 

A solution composed of 60% of water, 10% of glycerine, and 
30% of alcohol is commonly used, its freezing point being 
8% below zero. 

Evaporation. —On account of evaporation, fresh alcohol 
must be added frequently in order to maintain the proper so¬ 
lution. 

Radiator Repairs.— A small leak may be temporarily re¬ 
paired by applying brown soap, or white lead, but the repair 
should be made permanent with solder as soon as possible. A 
jammed radiator tube is a more serious affair. While the 
stopping up of one tube does not seriously interfere with cir¬ 
culation, it is bound to cause trouble sooner or later, and the 
tube will freeze in cold weather. Cut the tube an inch above 
and below the jam and insert a new piece soldering the connec¬ 
tion. If the entire radiator is badly jammed or broken, it 
will probably be advisable to install a new one. 

Air Cooling System.— Air cooling has been developed to 
a point where fairly good results are attained. This system 
has an advantage over the circulating systems, in that the 


COOLING SYSTEMS 


85 


weight of the radiator and water is done away with, and no 
trouble is experienced with stoppage of circulation and leaky 
connection. This system, however, has its drawbacks, in that 
it cannot be used successfully on the larger and more com¬ 
pact engines. In order to allow the necessary large space for 
radiation, the cylinders are heavily flanged and set separately. 
The fan is placed in a much higher position than usual, in or¬ 
der that the air current may strike the heads of the cylinders 
and circulate downward. Compression is also lowered con¬ 
siderable to prevent heat generation and pre-ignition. On ac¬ 
count of the small size of the cylinders and low compression, 
it is necessary to operate an air cooled engine at a very high 
rate of speed to produce sufficient power for automobile lo¬ 
comotion. 

The fan must be kept in good working condition, and care 
should be exercised in not allowing the engine to run idle for 
any length of time. 


CHAPTER XII 


MUFFLER CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE 

The muffler was designed to silence the otherwise loud re¬ 
port of the exploding charge of gas, which is released from 
the cylinders by the sudden opening of the exhaust valves. 

While these devices are differently shaped and formed, 
the functional purpose and action is practically the same in all 
designs. 

The burnt or inert gases are forced from the cylinders on 
the exhaust stroke. It passes into the exhaust manifold which 
absorbs some of the heat before it reaches the muffler. 



Fig. 48 shows a three compartment muffler. The burnt 
gases enter compartment No. 1 from the exhaust pipe. This 
compartment is sufficiently large to spread the volume which 
lessens the pressure and force. It then enters the rear com¬ 
partment No. 3, through the center pipe; it expands again and 
passes through the perforated spacer plate, enters compart¬ 
ment No. 2, and escapes through the nozzle in an even silent 
flow. 


86 
































MUFFLER CONSTRUCTION 


87 


The- muffler at all times produces a certain amount of back¬ 
pressure on the engine which results in a slight loss of power. 
The back pressure exerted by the majority of mufflers, how¬ 
ever, is very slight and has a tendency to counter balance 
or equalize the sudden shock delivered to the bearings by the 
explosion over the piston head. 

The muffler may also become fouled by the use of too much 
or too heavy a grade of lubricating oil, which will cause the 
expansion space and the small holes in the spacer plates to 
become clogged with carbon and soot. This carbon and soot 
soon bakes into a hard crust causing much back pressure 
which results in a considerable loss of power. This condition 
will become noticeable first by a loss of considerable power 
caused by an overheated motor. If this condition is not reme¬ 
died, the exhaust manifold and pipe leading to the muffler 
will soon become red-hot, causing much danger of a serious 
damage loss to the car from fire. 

Muffler.—To eliminate or remedy this condition, disconnect 
manifold pipe from the muffler, remove the muffler from 
hangers, and disassemble it by removing the nuts from the 
tie rods which release the end plates. This will allow the 
compartment walls and spacer plates to be drawn from the 
sleeve. Each compartment and spacer plate should be re- 



Fig. 49. Muffler 


moved sectionally, and its position carefully noted, in order 
that it may be replaced correctly in re-assembling. The walls 
of the sleeve, and the compartment end plates are scrapped 
and rubbed with a piece of sandpaper. A small round file 
may be used in cleaning the center pipe. The spacer plates 
are scraped and sandpapered. The small holes in the spacer 

































88 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


plates may be opened by using the tapered end of a small file. 
Fig. 49 shows a muffler of another design. The burnt gas 
enters a compartment containing three saucer shaped spacers 
which retard and break up the volume. It then passes through 
an open compartment and enters reversed spacers through 
small holes near the sleeve wall. It centers or forms slightly 
in volume and escapes to the next compartment through a 
small hole in the center of the second spacer. This action of 
forming and breaking is kept up until the outlet is reached. 


CHAPTER XIII 


VACUUM SYSTEMS 

Construction, Operation and Care 

The vacuum systems have proved to be one of the important 
inventions pertaining to successful motor operation. They 
are self contained, simple in construction and automatic in 
operation. They do away with the troublesome power and 
hand pressure pumps and their connections. 

Pig. 50 shows the top arrangement and connections. R is 
the air vent over the atmospheric valve. The effect of this 
is the same as if the whole tank were elevated, and is for the 


FROM 

GASOLINE 
SUPPLY TANK 



Fig. 50. Vacuum System—Top Arrangement 


purpose of preventing an overflow of gasoline, should the po¬ 
sition of the car ever be such as to raise the fuel supply tank 
higher than the vacuum tank. D shows the pipe connection 
from the fuel supply tank. C shows the pipe connection to 

89 


























90 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


the intake manifold. W shows a tap or vent through which 
gasoline may be fed into the upper chamber, in case the 
fuel supply tank is damaged or put out of commission. R 
shows the air vent connection from the lower tank. 

Fig. 51 shows a general diagram of vacuum system installa¬ 
tion. One of the chief advantages is that it allows the car¬ 
buretor to be placed near the head of the motor and does 
away with the long manifold connections required with the 
gravity feed systems. This also reduces the frictional resist¬ 
ance, gives a richer mixture and greater volume of flow. 



Fig. 52 shows a sectional view of the Stewart Vacuum Sys¬ 
tem and explains the operative value of each part. A is the 
suction valve for opening and closing the connection to the 
manifold through which a vacuum is extended from the en¬ 
gine manifold to the gasoline tank. B is the atmospheric 
valve, and permits or prevents an atmospheric condition in 
the upper chamber. When the suction valve A is open and 
the suction is drawing gasoline from the main supply tank, 
the atmospheric valve B is closed. When the suction valve 
A is closed, the atmospheric valve B must be open, as an at¬ 
mospheric condition is necessary in the upper tank in order 










































VACUUM SYSTEMS 


91 


to allow the gasoline to flow through the flapper valve H into 
the lower chamber. C is a pipe connecting the tank to the 
intake manifold of the engine. D is a pipe connecting the 
tank to the main fuel supply tank. E is the valve control 


AIR VENT-* 



TO CARBU¬ 
RETOR 


Fig. 52. Vacuum System Diagram—Stewart Warner 


lever and has two coil tension springs S attached to operate 
the short valve lever F. G is the metallic air-containing float, 
which controls the action of the valves through the spring and 
lever arrangement. H is the flapper valve at the outlet of T, 
and it closes by suction when the vacuum valve A is open. 






































92 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


When the vacuum valve A closes, the atmospheric valve B 
opens and relieves the suction in the upper tank, the flapper 
valve H opens and allows the fuel to flow from the upper 
tank into the lower chamber. 

J is a plug in the bottom of the tank which can be removed 
to clean or drain the tank. This plug can be removed and 
replaced with a pet-cock for drawing off gasoline for prim¬ 
ing or cleaning purposes. K is the line to the carburetor. 
It is extended on the inside of the tank to form a pocket for 
trapping water and sediment. L is a channel space between 
the inner and outer shells and connects with the air vent R, 
thus admitting an atmospheric condition to exist in the lower 
chamber at all times, and thereby permitting an uninterrupted 
flow of gasoline to the carburetor. R is an air vent over the 
atmospheric valve; the effect of this valve is the same as if 
the whole tank was elevated. It is also for the purpose of 
preventing an overflow of gasoline should the position of the 
car ever be such as would raise the fuel supply tank higher 
than the vacuum tank. Through this tube the lower or reser¬ 
voir chamber is continually open to atmospheric pressure. 
T is the outlet at the bottom of the float chamber in which 
the flapper valve H is located. U is the float stem guide. V 
is a strainer which prevents foreign matter from passing into 
the vacuum chamber. W is a tap or vent through which gaso¬ 
line may be fed into the upper chamber if the fuel tank is 
damaged or put out of commission. 

The simple and durable construction of this system makes it 
unlikely that the car owner will ever need to make internal 
repairs. Before attempting to repair this tank make sure 
that the trouble is not due to some other cause. 

Air Vent.—A small amount of gasoline may escape through 
the air vent occasionally. This will do no harm and no ad¬ 
justment is needed. However, if the vent tube continues to 
overflow, one of the following conditions will be responsible: 
1. The air hole in the main supply tank is stopped up, or 
the hole is too small. Enlarge the hole or clean it out. 2. 
If gasoline leaks from the system except from the vent tube, 


VACUUM SYSTEMS 


93 


it can only do so from one of the following' causes: a. A 
leak may exist in the outer wall of the tank. If so soldering 
it up will eliminate the trouble, b. The carburetor connection 
on the bottom of the tank may be loose, c. There may be 
a leak in the tubing at the head of the tank. d. The cover 
of the tank may be loose. 

Failure to Feed Gasoline to the Carburetor.—This condi¬ 
tion may be due to other causes than the vacuum system. Do 
not tinker with it until you are sure that the trouble is not 
elsewhere. Flood the carburetor. If gasoline runs out of the 
float chamber you may be sure that the vacuum system is per¬ 
forming its work properly. 

To Remove Cover.—To remove the cover for inspection, 
take out the screws and rim a knife blade carefully around the 
top to separate the gasket without damaging it. Shellac the 
gasket before you replace it to make the tank air-tight. 

Faulty Feed.—If faulty feed is traced to the vacuum tank, 
one of the following conditions may be the cause. The float 
valve G may have developed a leak. To repair, remove the 
top of the tank to which it is attached. Dip the float into a 
pan of hot water. Bubbles will show the leak. Punch two 
small holes, one at the top, and one at the bottom, and blow 
the gasoline out. Then solder up the holes and the leak. 
Use solder carefully in order not to add too much weight to 
the float. A small particle of dirt may be lodged under the 
flapper valve. This trouble can usually be remedied by tap¬ 
ping the side of the tank. In order to determine whether or 
not the flapper valve is working properly, plug up the air 
vent tube and remove the pipe extending from the bottom of 
the tank to the carburetor. Start the engine and place a 
finger over the opening (from which you removed the tube). 
If continual suction is felt, it is evident that the flapper valve 
is being held off its seat. If tapping the side of the tank will 
not remedy this condition, remove the cover and withdraw the 
upper chamber. The valve is attached to the pipe project¬ 
ing from the bottom. 

Strainer.—Remove and clean the strainer screen located at 


94 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


V, Fig. 52, every five or six weeks. This screen collects all 
the dirt and foreign matter in the gasoline, and often becomes 
stopped up. 


CONNECTION TO 
GASOLINE TANK 


STRAINER 
COVER 

VALVE LEVER 
SPRINGS 

FLOAT LIVER 


FLOAT 


GUIDE 


DRAIN PLUO 



FLAPPER VALVE 


SUCTION TUBE . 
CONNECTION TO INTAKE 
MAXIFOLD 


VENT TUBE 
CONNECTION 


ATMOSPHERIC 

VALVE 

SUCTION VALVE 
INNER TANK 

OUTERTANK 


CONNECTION TO 
CARBURETOR 


Fig. 53. Vacuum System—Inside View of Parts—Stewart Warner 


Filling the Vacuum Tank.—To fill the tank after it has 
been cleaned or repaired, leave the spark off, close the gas 
throttle, and crank the engine over a few times with the 
starter or by hand. It takes less than ten seconds to create 
sufficient vacuum to fill the tank. 




















































































CHAPTER XIV 


ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY OF PARTS, UNITS AND TERMS 

Before taking up the study of automobile ignition systems 
and electrical appliances, we will first devote a little time to 
stud} 7 , in order to become familiar with the different electrical 
parts, functions, terms and names applied to the various units, 
and machines. 

In the first place electricity is not a juice or fluid that flows 
through a wire, but is a generated electro-motive force that 
may be held in storage or conducted from one place to 
another. It will not flow without a round circuit and seeks 
ground return at the slightest opportunity. It is designated 
in terms which express quality, quantity, force and action. 

Voltage.—A volt is an electrical unit, expressing the force 
or pressure of the current. The voltage of a system simply 
means the difference of pressure exerted on the system meas¬ 
ured in volts. 

Ampere.—An ampere is an electrical unit expressing the 
quality or intensity of the current. 

Ohm.—An ohm is an electrical unit expressing resistance; 
or the resistance of conductors to the flow of current. 

Current.—The current is the generated electro-motive force. 

Circuit.—Electricity will not flow unless there is a circuit 
or ground return to its original source. 

Low Tension Current.—Low tension current is generated in 
the primary winding or coil by placing it in a magnetic field. 
It will flow from one point to another but has very little 
strength and will not jump the gap at the spark plug. It is 
used for lighting purposes, or conducted to an induction coil 
which transforms it into a high tension alternating current. 

High Tension Current.—High tension current is generated 

95 


96 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


in the secondary coil by interruption of the primary current 
or by the rapid magnetization and demagnetization of the 
core and primary coil. 

Direct Current.—Direct current is produced by placing a 
coil or wire in a magnetic field. It is usually conducted to an 
induction coil where it is transformed into a high tension al¬ 
ternating current. 

Alternating Currents.—Alternating currents are produced 
by the rapid breaking down and building up of the primary 
current. An alternating current flows forward from zero to 
its highest point of strength and back again to zero. The 
alternating action takes place so rapidly that a light can be 
connected in this circuit and it will burn steadily without any 
noticeable fluctuation. 



Induction Coil.—An induction coil consists of a soft iron 
core; a primary and secondary winding, and a set of platinum 
points. The primary winding is wound directly over the core 
and consists of a few turns of thick wire. The secondary 
wire is wound over the primary and consists of a great many 
turns of thin wire. Fig. 54 shows the functional action of 
an induction coil. Both of the coils are wound on the soft 
iron core A-B. The primary current which is supplied in this 
case by a cell or number of cells, C and D, is broken at fre¬ 
quent intervals of time. The method of doing this is as fol¬ 
lows: One terminal of the primary coil is connected to the 


















ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY 


97 


fixed platinum stud D, the other terminal to a spring which 
carries a piece of soft iron, E. When the spring is unbent it 
touches the stud D, and a current passes in the primary. The 
core of soft iron becomes magnetized and attracts the soft iron 
disc, E, thus breaking contact at D. The current is stopped 
and the core immediately becomes unmagnetized, the spring 
flies back and the contact is again made. The process is then 
repeated. When the contact in the primary is broken the 
current flows in one direction in the secondary coil, when it is 
made the current flows in the opposite direction in the sec¬ 
ondary. Thus an alternating current is set up in the sec¬ 
ondary current of great frequency. 

Commutator.—The commutator or timer as it is commonly 
called is used only in connection with the induction coil to 
complete the circuit when a spark is required at the plug in 
the cylinder. 

Insulation.—Insulating is the act of covering a conductor 
with a non-conducting substance to prevent the spark from 
jumping or seeking ground. 

Choking Coil.—A choking coil in simple form consists of a 
coil and iron core to increase self-induction. It is used to 
reduce currents of high pressure and is commonly called a 
bucking coil. 

Fuse.—A fuse is used to prevent conductors or coils from 
being damaged by heat generated from high pressure cur¬ 
rents. It consists of a metal and glass tube which contains a 
fine wire. This wire being much thinner than the wire of the 
cable, the heat naturally develops faster at this point, and is 
soon high enough to melt the wire and break or open the cir¬ 
cuit, and thus any further damage to the insulation is pre¬ 
vented. 

Condenser.—A condenser usually consists of a few strips 
of folded tin foil insulated from each other with paraffined or 
oiled paper. It absorbs, restricts and distributes high pres¬ 
sure currents and also prevents excessive sparking at the 
contact points. 

Dynamo.—A dynamo is a machine which converts mechani- 



98 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


cal energy into electric energy, and must consist of at least 
two seperate parts; the field magnets to create the magnetic 
field, and the armature or conductor in which the current is 
generated. One or the other of these must be in motion in 
order to cut the lines of magnetic force crossing the field. 
Fig. 55 shows the operation of the most common or simplest 
type of alternating current producing machine, which is simi¬ 
lar and conforms in action to the high tension magneto and 
generator. Field pieces magnetize the pole pieces N and S. 
A wire coil is placed in the field at right angles to the mag¬ 



netic lines of force turned to the right. It takes up the po¬ 
sition of the dotted lines and no lines of force are cut, 
whereas in its original position, as many lines of force as 
possible are cut. Turning the coil on its axles, A-B, causes 
the lines of force cut by C-D, and E-F to vary from the high¬ 
est number of lines that it is possible to cut to zero and back 
again, thus constantly changing the flowing direction of the 
current. The reversal of the current takes place at the instant 
that the coil passes the point where it cuts the greatest number 
of lines of force. The ends of the coil are connected to a 
commutator on the shaft A, B. Steel insulated brushes pick 
the current from the commutator ring and conduct it to the 
brush post; an insulated wire conductor is attached to this 
post and conducts the current to the place of use or storage. 















ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY 


99 


Voltaic Cell.— The source of energy of a voltaic cell is the 
chemical action. (See accumulator). 

Accumulator.— The standard accumulator or storage bat¬ 
tery is composed of three cells or hard rubber jars in which 
a number of lead plates are immersed in a solution of sul¬ 
phuric acid and water known as electrolyte. The plates are 
stiff lead grids which hold a paste made of various oxides of 
lead. Six plates in each cell are joined to the positive ter¬ 
minal, and seven plates in each cell are joined to the negative 
terminal. Thin wooden separators are inserted between the 
plates to prevent them from touching one another. In the 
forming process the material on the positive plates becomes 
converted into brown peroxide of lead; the negative plates 
assume the form of gray metallic lead. The material on 
both plates is known as active material. When current is 
taken from the cells the sulphuric acid in the electrolyte com¬ 
bines with the active material of the plates to form sulphate 
of lead, and when the battery is recharged the lead sulphate 
is again converted into the original active material and the 
acid set free in the solution. 

Storage Battery. —For construction and action see Accumu¬ 
lator. For care see chapter on storage batteries. 

Electrolyte.— A chemical solution used in voltaic cells con¬ 
sisting of two parts sulphuric acid added to five to seven parts 
of water by volume. 

Hydrometer.— A hydrometer is used to test the electrolyte 
solution in the cells of storage batteries. It consists of a 
weighted float and a graduated stem, and as sulphuric acid is 
heavier than water, the specific gravity reading will be pro¬ 
portional to the amount of acid. The hydrometer thus meas¬ 
ures the relative amount of acid in the electrolyte and conse¬ 
quently reveals the condition of the battery. 

Ammeter.— An ammeter is an electrical instrument which 
indicates the amount of current that the generator is supply¬ 
ing to the storage battery, or the amount of current that the 
storage battery is supplying for ignition, lights and horn. 

Circuit Breaker.— The circuit breaker is a device which pre- 





100 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


vents excessive discharging of the storage battery. All the 
' current for lights is conducted through the circuit breaker 
(Delco system). Whenever an excessive current flows through 
the circuit breaker it intermittently opens the circuit causing 
a clicking sound. This will continue until the ground is re¬ 
moved or the switch is operated to open the circuit on the 
grounded wire. When the ground is removed the circuit is au¬ 
tomatically restored, there being nothing to replace as is the 
case with fuses. 

Switch.—A switch opens and closes the various circuits and 
is for the purpose of controlling the light, ignition, generator 
and storage battery circuits. 

Generator.—See chapter f»n electrical starting systems. 

Regulation.— (Delco). On account of the various speeds 
at which the generator must operate it is necessary that the 
output be regulated so that sufficient current is obtained at 
the low engine speeds without excessive current at the higher 
speeds. The regulation in this case is what is known as the 
third brush excitation in which the current for magnetizing 
the frame is conducted through the auxiliary or third brush 
on the generator commutator. With this arrangement the 
natural function of the generator itself causes less current 
to flow through the shunt field winding at the higher engine 
speeds. This weakens the magnetic field in which the arma¬ 
ture is rotating and decreases the output of the generator. 

Contact-breaker.—See chapter on Atwater Kent ignition 
systems. 

Coil, nonvibrating.—See chapters on Atwater Kent ignition 
systems and Philbrin electrical systems. 

Distributors.—See chapters on Magnetos and Atwater Kent 
ignition systems. 


i 


CHAPTER XV 


MAGNETO PARTS AND OPERATION 

The purpose of the magneto is to furnish electrical cur¬ 
rent at regular intervals, to jump the spark plug gaps and to 
ignite the gas which has been compressed in the combustion 
chambers. The discovery was made years ago that, by plac¬ 
ing a coil of wire between two magnetic poles, current would 
be present at once. But it is only while the wire coil is in 
motion that the current will flow or circulate, and while there 
are many theories why this takes place only while the coil is 





A 

Fig. 56. Magnets—Pole Blocks 


in motion, none seem to explain the fact satisfactorily. The 
strength of the current depends on the size of the magnetic 
field, and the number of wraps of wire in the coil. Conse¬ 
quently the larger the coil the more intense the current. Fig. 
56 represents the magnets, of which there are from three to 
six. The U-shaped pieces are made of steel which has been 
case hardened and charged with electricity which causes them 
to become magnetized. Magnets have two poles or axes, one 
of which is positive from which the current flows, and one of 
which is negative to which the current flows or passes. Fig. 

101 












102 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


56A shows the pole pieces which are located on the inside of the 
lower or open end of the magnets. The pole pieces are channel 
ground, leaving a round space or tunnel in which the arma¬ 
ture revolves. 

Fig. 57 shows the soft iron core which is shaped like the 
block letter H, and wound with fine wire, making up the coil 
shown in Fig. 57A of the wound armature. 



A 

Fig. 57. Armature Core—Wound Armature 


Fig. 58 shows the primary and secondary winding. The 
primary or heavy wire is wound on the core lengthwise, each 
strand being separated from the other with rubber or tin foil 
insulation. The current passes from the top of the left pole 
piece to the top of the core until it passed out of range, 
crossing the upper gap between the two pole pieces. As the 




B 

and Current Direction 


top of the core leaves or breaks the contact flow of current, 
the bottom of the core comes in contact range, leaving an 
open space which breaks the current and changes the direc¬ 
tion of flowage as shown in Fig. 5SA and 58B. This current is 
of a low tension nature, and will not jump the gap at the 























MAGNETO PARTS, AND OPERATION 


103 


spark plugs when the engine is running slow. The secondary 
winding, shown in Fig. 58, is made up of many more wind¬ 
ings of a finer wire. The low tension or primary current is 
led through the armature shaft to a contact breaker at the 
rear of the magneto. 

Fig. 59 shows the contact breaker, which consists of a hous¬ 
ing in which two platinum points are arranged, one point sta¬ 
tionary, the other attached to an arm on a pivet. The points 
are held together by spring tension. 

A cam on the armature shaft comes into contact with the 
arm on which the second point is located, forcing it from 
the stationary point, thus breaking the low tension current 



A 

Fig. 59. Breaker—Slip Ring—Distributor 


B 


which returns to the secondary coil, the magnetizing and de¬ 
magnetizing caused by the break in the low tension current, 
and sets up a rapid alternating current. One end of the sec¬ 
ondary is led to a collector ring on the front of the magneto. 
Fig. 59A shows the collector ring. A carbon brush collects the 
current from the ring and conducts it to the distributor’s cen¬ 
trally located arm. Fig. 59B shows the distributor. The cen¬ 
trally located arm is timed to deliver the current, or comes 
into contact with one of the segments or brashes and allows 
the current to flow from the segment to the gap at the spark 
plug, where it jumps the gaps and ignites the gas in the cyl¬ 
inders at the proper time. Then it returns through the 
ground (the engine and the frame) to the magneto, where it 
passes back into the secondary coil, passing through an in¬ 
sulated condenser consisting of small plates of steel insulated 
from one another. This regulates the flowage of the return- 


104 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


ing current, by reducing it through resistance, and prevents 
the armature from heating. 

A safety spark gap is provided on some magnetos which 
causes the spark to jump and lose some of its force through 
resistance when the plugs become shorted. This also restricts 
the current and greatly aids the condenser in performing its 
purpose. 


CHAPTER XVI 


BOSCH HIGH TENSION MAGNETO 
Operation, Adjustment and Care 

Like all other types of high tension magnetos, the Bosch 
Type ZR. Ed. 16 explained in this chapter, generates its own 
current and is usually employed as sole ignition on an engine. 

The timer and distributor are integral; and the rotation of 
the armature, between the poles of strong permanent field 
magnets, sets up or induces a current in the armature primary 
circuit, which is farther augmented at every one hundred and 
eighty degrees of revolution of the armature shaft, by the 
abrupt interruption of the primary circuit by means of the 
magneto interruptor. At the opening of the primary circuit 
the resulting discharge of current from this circuit induces a 
current of high voltage in the armature secondary circuit. 
The high tension current thus created is collected by a slip 
ring on the armature and passes to the slip ring brush then 
to the various magneto distributor terminals each of which 
is connected to a spark plug in its respective cylinder. 

The operation of the instrument will be more clearly un¬ 
derstood from a study of the complete circuits, primary and 
secondary, which follows. 

The Primary or Low Tension Circuit.—The beginning of 
the armature primary circuit is in metallic contact with the 
armature core, and the end of the primary circuit is con¬ 
nected by means of the interruptor fastening screw to the in¬ 
sulated contact block supporting the long platinum contact 
on the magneto interruptor. The interruptor lever carrying 
a short platinum contact, shown in Fig. 60 at C is mounted on 
the interruptor disc, which in turn, is connected to the arma- 

105 


106 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


ture core. The primary circuit is completed whenever the 
two platinum contacts of the interruptor are brought together, 
and separated whenever these contacts are separated. 

From the latter point the high tension current passes to the 
distributor brush (shown at D) which is held in a brush holder 
on the distributor gear, and consequently rotates with the 
distributor gear. Metal segments are imbedded in the dis¬ 
tributor plate and as the distributor brush rotates it makes 



Fig. 60. Bosch M Distributor and Interruptor—Housing Removed 

successive contacts with the segments, passing the current 
onto the spark plug gaps through the high tension cables 
which are attached to the segment terminal posts. 

Fig. 61 shows a circuit diagram of the Type ZR. Ed. 16. 
Bosch Magneto. Note that the spark plugs must be con¬ 
nected up in accordance with the firing order of the engine. 
The metal segments imbedded in the distributor plate are 
connected with the terminal studs on the face of the plate, 
and the latter are connected by cable to the spark plugs in 
the various cylinders. In the cylinders the high tension cur¬ 
rent produces a spark which produces ignition, and then re¬ 
turns through the ground and the engine to the magneto ar¬ 
mature, thus completing the circuit. 

Timing the Magneto.—With the average four cycle engine 
the proper operating results are obtained by timing the mag- 





















BOSCH HIGH TENSION MAGNETO 


107 


neto as follows: The crank shaft is rotated to bring the piston 
in No. 1 cylinder (in automobile practice this is the cylinder 
nearest the radiator) exactly on top dead center of the com¬ 
pression stroke. The timing control lever on the housing is 
then placed in the fully retarded position. With this done, 
the magneto distributor plate should be removed by with¬ 
drawing the two holding screws, or by releasing the two 
holding springs as the case may be. 



The operation of the platinum contact points is controlled 
by the action of the interruptor lever as it bears against 
the two steel segments secured to the inner surface of the 
interruptor housing. 

In Fig. 60, A shows the distributor with the face plate 
removed to show the position of the distributor segments 
which are connected to the terminal posts on the back of the 
plate. B sho^s the interruptor housing and cover removed 
from its position on the magneto. C shows the complete as¬ 
sembly of the distributor and interruptor. Note that the face 
plate of the distributor is fastened on with a set of screws 
while the interruptor cover is held in position with a latch. 

The Secondary or High Tension Current.—The high ten- 




































108 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


sion current is generated in the secondary circuit only when 
there is an interruption of the primary circuit, the spark be¬ 
ing produced at the instant the platinum interruptor contact 
points separate. The armature secondary circuit is a con¬ 
tinuation of the armature primary circuit, the beginning of 
the secondary circuit being connected to the primary, while 
the end of the secondary is connected to the insulated current 
collector ring mounted on the armature just inside the driving 
shaft end plate of the magneto. The slip ring brush is held 
in contact with the slip ring by a brush holder at the shaft 
end of the magneto which receives the high tension current 
collected by the slip ring by means of a connecting bar which 
passes under the arch of the magnets, and passes the current 
to the center of the distributor plate, thus exposing the dis¬ 
tributor brush and gear. The cover of the interruptor hous¬ 
ing is also to be removed to permit observation of the inter¬ 
ruptor points. 

The armature should then be rotated by means of the ex¬ 
posed distributor gear in the direction in which it is driven 
until the platinum contact points are about to separate, which 
occurs when the interruptor lever begins to bear against one 
of the steel segments of the interruptor housing. Timing or 
installation is completed by replacing the interruptor housing 
cover and distributor plate, and connecting the cables between 
the magneto and the spark plugs. 

Exact Magneto Timing.—The foregoing will establish the 
desired relationship between the magneto armature shaft and 
the engine crank shaft. It should be noted, however, that 
while these instructions cover the average engine, the exact 
magneto timing for individual engines is best determined by 
trial. 

When specific instructions for magneto timing are given by 
the engine manufacturer, it is recommended that such in¬ 
structions be followed in preference to those herein given. 

It must always be borne in mind that while making con¬ 
nections the distributor brush travels in the opposite direc¬ 
tion to the rotation of the armature shaft. 


BOSCH HIGH TENSION MAGNETO 


109 


The Condenser.—The condenser consists of a set of metal 
discs, insulated from one another with tin foil. It is carried 
at the interruptor end of the magneto. It is connected in the 
primary current and forms a shunt connection with the in¬ 
terruptor contact points, and through resistance to the re¬ 
turning ground current prevents excessive sparking at the in¬ 
terruptor contact points which would soon burn the points 
and ruin the coils. 

The Safety Spark Cap.—A safety spark cap is provided to 
protect the armature and other current carrying parts. Under 
normal conditions the current will follow its path to the spark 
plug, but if for any reason the resistance in the secondary 
wire is increased to a high point, as when a cable becomes dis¬ 
connected, or a spark gap too wide, the high tension current 
will discharge across the safety spark gap. 

Caution.—The current should never be allowed to pass over 
the safety spark gap for any length of time, and if the en¬ 
gine is operated on a second or auxiliary ignition system, the 
magneto must be grounded in order to prevent the production 
of high tension current. The snapping sound by which the 
passage of current across the safety spark gap may be noted 
should always lead to an immediate search for the cause of the 
difficulty. 

The Safety Spark Gap.—The safety spark gap consists of 
a pointed metal electrode projecting from the mounting flange 
of the slip ring holder, inside the shaft end hood. The tip 
of the electrode extends to within a short distance of the con¬ 
necting bar, extending from the brush holder to a magneto 
distributor plate center post. 

Timing Range.—The magneto interruptor housing is ar¬ 
ranged so that it may be rotated through an angle of thirty- 
four to thirty-seven degrees with respect to the armature shaft. 
The movement of this housing in one direction or another 
causes the interruptor lever to strike the steel segments earlier 
or later in the revolution of the armature, the spark occurring 
correspondingly earlier or later in the cylinder. The spark 
can be advanced by means of moving the interruptor housing 


110 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


which is connected to the spark lever on the steering gear, in 
the direction opposite the rotation of the armature. The ar¬ 
mature rotation is usually indicated by an arrow on the cover 
at the driving end of the magneto. 

Cutting Out Ignition.—Since a high tension current is 
generated only on the interruption of the primary circuit, it 
is evident that in order to cut out the ignition, it is merely 
necessary to divert the primary current to a path that is not 
affected by the action of the magneto interruptor. This is 
accomplished as follows: An insulated grounding terminal is 
provided on the cover of the magneto interruptor housing with 
its inner end consisting of a spring with carbon contact press¬ 
ing against the head of an interruptor fastening screw. The 
outer end of the grounding screw is connected by low tension 
cable to one side of the switch, and the other side of the 
switch is grounded by connecting a cable between it and the 
engine or frame. When the switch is open the primary cur¬ 
rent follows its normal path across the interruptor points, 
and is interrupted at each separation of these contact points. 
However, when the switch is closed, the primary current 
passes from the head of the interruptor fastening screw to the 
carbon contacts of the grounding terminal, thence through the 
switch to the engine and back to the magneto, and as the pri¬ 
mary current remains uninterrupted when following this path, 
no ignition current is produced. 

Care and Maintenance.—Aside from keeping the magneto 
clean externally, practically the only care required is the oil¬ 
ing of the bearings. Of these there are two sets supporting 
the armature, and a single plain bearing supporting the shaft 
of the distributor gear. Any good light oil may be used for 
this purpose (never cylinder oil), and each of the bearings 
should receive not more than two or three drops about every 
thousand miles. Apply the oil through the oil ducts at each 
end of the armature shaft. The interruptor is intended to 
operate without oil, as oil on the interruptor platinum points 
prevents good contact, and causes sparking, burning, and mis¬ 
firing. Care should be taken to prevent oil entering these parts. 


I 


CHAPTER XYII 

MAGNETO WASHING, REPAIRING AND TIMING 

One point that cannot be over sufficiently emphasized is 
the warning that only those who are thoroughly familiar with 
the magneto should attempt to disassemble it. Therefore ev¬ 
ery part should be studied, and its functional action fully 
understood before any repairs or adjustments are undertaken. 

The manufacturers of magnetos have developed their pro¬ 
duct to a point of high efficiency and dependability, and if 
they are properly lubricated and washed occasionally to pre¬ 
vent gumming up, very little trouble may be expected from 
this type of ignition system. 

Magneto Cleaning.—Magneto parts should be washed with 
gasoline as it has the ability to remove grease and dirt and 
evaporates rapidly leaving a perfectly dry surface. Care 
should be exercised to prevent fire, for the present grade of 
gasoline does not evaporate as readily as it did some time ago 
when refiners furnished a high test grade of fuel and the sur¬ 
face of the armature and indentures of the magneto may retain 
a pool or film which may be ignited by a short circuit, or from 
the breaker box, and cause a fire which would ruin the magneto. 
There is, however, little danger from fire if the gasoline is 
used sparingly, and each part wiped dry before reassembling 
the magneto. 

It is considered a good point when the magneto has been 
taken apart to be cleaned to go over every part with a cloth 
dampened in kerosene, because gasoline leaves a very dry sur¬ 
face which is liable to rust. The bearings especially are most 
easily affected in this way. 

The armature may be washed with a brush which has been 

111 


112 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


dipped into gasoline, but should not be immersed as that 
would soften the insulation and cause it to rot. 

The way in which the parts come off should be carefully 
noted in order to avoid trouble in reassembling, and the gears 
operating the distributor should be carefully marked to assure 
correct timing, which will result in a saving of time and 
trouble. 

When the magnets are removed, close the ends with a file 
or piece of steel to prevent them from becoming demagnetized. 

Magneto Repairing.—As previously stated, it is not likely 
that a magneto will require any further attention than the 
regular monthly oiling. Two or three drops of light sewing 
machine oil should be dropped into the oil wells which supply 
the bearings at each end of the armature shaft. 

If any trouble arises that can be traced directly to the 
magneto, examine the breaker box mechanism first; the lock¬ 
nut at the point adjustment may have worked loose, and the 
points may be closed, or some abnormal condition may exist 
that has caused the points to pit and stick. 

Breaker point adjustment varies from the thickness of a 
sheet of writing paper to one sixty-fourth of an inch; an ad¬ 
justment anywhere between these two points usually results 
in satisfactory operation. 

If the magneto does not function properly after the breaker 
box and external wire connections have been examined, the 
trouble is probably due to an internal short circuit, and re¬ 
pairs of this nature should only be undertaken by an expert 
magneto mechanic. 

To remove the magneto, disconnect the high tension wires 
leading to the spark plugs from the distributor terminal posts, 
tag and number each wire to correspond with the number 
stamped below the post. If the engine fires 1-2-4-3, number 
three wire will be attached to number four terminal post. 
Then remove the ground wire and disconnect the universal 
joint and remove the metal strap, or the set screws, from the 
base. 

To Time the Magneto.—Place the timing control lever in 


MAGNETO WASHING 


113 


a fully retarded position; remove the plates from the dis¬ 
tributor housing to expose the distributor brush and gear, 
then remove the cover from the interruptor housing to permit 
observation of the points, and rotate the armature in the di¬ 
rection which it is driven until the point begins to open. At 
this point mesh the distributor gear so that the distributor 
lever will just be touching one of the segments which connect 
to the distributor terminal posts. 

Timing the Magneto with the Engine.—Rotate the crank 
shaft until No. 1 cylinder is up on dead center on the com¬ 
pression stroke; rotate the armature, with the spark lever in 
full retard until the distributor arm begins to make contact 
with No. 1 segment, and mesh the timing gear at this point. 


CHAPTER XVIII 


NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM 

The N.-E. Model 0 Distributor Ignition System is used on 
Dodge Brothers cars. This system provides high tension ig¬ 
nition for the engine by transforming the low voltage of the 
starter generator or the battery into a high voltage capable of 
jumping freely between the spark plug electrodes. This is 
accomplished through the agency of an induction coil, the 
primary winding of which, in series with an interruptor or 
contact breaker, receives current under normal running con¬ 
ditions from the starter generator. •The starting and light¬ 
ing battery, however, supplies this current instead of the 
generator whenever the engine is starting or running very 
slowly. 

At each interruption of the primary current there is set up 
in the secondary winding of the coil a high tension current, 
and this current flows from the coil through a high tension 
cable to the distributor rotor from which point it is selectively 
conducted to the proper spark plug. Upon reaching the spark 
gap in the plug, it jumps from the inner electrode to the outer 
one, which is grounded, and then returns through the engine 
frame to the grounded end of the secondary winding on the 
ignition coil. The high tension spark thus produced in the 
cylinder ignites the gas and so brings about the necessary com¬ 
bustion. 

Wiring (Fig. 62).—As will be evident upon reference to 
the accompanying wiring diagram, the primary circuit of the 
ignition system leads from the positive terminal of the bat¬ 
tery through the charging indicator to the ignition switch 
binding post marked “Bat.,” thence, when the switch is turned 
on, through the switch to one of its binding posts marked “Ign. 

114 


NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM 




115 


Circuit Diagram of the Model O Ignition System on the Dodge Brothers Motor Car 

Fig. 62. Wiring Diagram, North-East System—on Dodge Car 






























































116 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


Coil.” Continuing on from this point through the ignition 
coil and the breaker contacts, it returns to the second switch 
binding post marked “Ign. Coil,” where it passes through the 
switch again. It then finally reaches the grounded negative 
terminal of the battery through the grounded terminal of the 
switch and the car frame. 

The ignition switch is so constructed that it produces a re¬ 
versal of polarity in the distributor circuit each time the 
switch is turned off and then on again. For this reason there 
is no necessity of making a distinction between the two wires 
leading from the distributor to the two switch binding posts 
marked “Ign. Coil,” because the operation of the system can¬ 
not be affected by the transposition of these wires. With 
this one exception, however, the ignition circuit connections 
must always be made exactly as indicated in the diagrams, if 
satisfactory operation of the system is to be maintained. 

Ignition Distributor. (Fig. 63).—The model 0 ignition 
distributor is mounted on the right-hand side of the Dodge 
Brothers engine where it is held rigidly in position by means 
of four bolts. The horizontal shaft of the distributor is con- 


0»STRiBVTO*-B*V$M 
DISTRIBUTOR- ROTOR 
BREAKER”ARM 
VERTICAL. SHAFT 


PRIMARY COU. 
TERMINALS. 


HIGH TENSION 
Distributor terminal 

•OlSTRlBUTOR-HEAD 
-CAM NUT 
LOCH WASHERS 
BREAKER-CAM 


tationary CONTACT-STVO 

SUPPORT 



HIGH TENSION 
COIL TERMINAL 


COIL HOUSINO 
IGNITION COIL 


MORQJONTAL SHAFT 


VERTICAL. SPIRAL gcaa 

horizontal spiral GEAR 


Fig. 63. North-East Distributor—Model O—Ignition 












































































































NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM 


117 


nected directly to the engine pump shaft through a flexible 
coupling, and runs, therefore, at engine speed. The vertical 
distributor shaft is driven from the horizontal shaft by means 

of spiral gears which reduce its speed to one-half that of the 
engine. 

The complete distributor unit consists essentially of three 
self-contained assemblies: The ignition coil, the breaker box 
and distributor base assembly which include the automatic 
spark advancing mechanism. Each one of these three elements 
is so constructed as to be readily detachable from the dis¬ 
tributor unit independently of the others. 

Ignition Coil.—The ignition coil, which is contained in a 
separate housing, forming part of the distributor unit, is con¬ 
structed for 12 volt service and operates directly on the 
starting and lighting circuit. The coil housing is attached to 
the distributor base by -means of four screws a-nd serves also 
as a cover for the automatic advance compartment. The 
high tension terminal located on the coil housing is designed 
to provide a safety spark gap, as well as to act as a binding 
post for the high tension cable which connects the coil to the 
distributor head. 

Breaker Box and Distributor Head Assembly. (Fig. 64). 
—The breaker box and distributor head assembly is mounted 
in an upright position near the center of the distributor base 
and is secured in place by a large-headed screw in the vertical 
portion of the base. This screw projects into the annular 
groove in the verticle shaft bearing sleeve, thereby preventing 
the breaker box assembly from becoming detached from the 
distributor base and yet at the same time permitting it to turn 
freely from side to side. The short lug projecting down¬ 
ward from the manual control lever on the breaker box ex¬ 
tends into the round hole near the middle of the distributor 
base and acts as a stop to limit the travel of the breaker box. 

In case it should become necessary to remove the breaker 
box and distributor head assembly, the distributor head should 
first be detached from the breaker box and then, with the 
breaker box in the position of full retard, the exact location 


118 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


of the distributor rotor should be marked accurately on the 
edge of the box. This mark should be made with special 
care, because it has to serve as the sole guide for the correct 
position of the vertical shaft when the assembly is put back 
in place again on the distributor base. Moreover, while the 
breaker box assembly is separated from the base, the horizon- 



Fig. 64. North-East Breaker-Box 


tal shaft in the base must not be turned from the position it 
occupied at the time when the location of the rotor was marked. 
If either of these precautions is neglected, the correct rela¬ 
tionship between the several moving parts of the system will 
be likely to be disturbed to such an extent that the complete 
retiming of the distributor will become necessary. 

Condenser.—The condenser, shunted across the breaker con¬ 
tacts to absorb the inductive surges that occur in the primary 
circuit at each interruption, serves to intensify the effect pro¬ 
duced in the secondary circuit by these interruptions, and also 
to protect the breaker contacts from injurious arcing. It is 
contained in a sealed case which protects it against possible 
external injury, and is located in the breaker box close to 
the breaker contacts where its maximum effectiveness is ob¬ 
tained. 

Being very substantially constructed, the condenser ordi- 













NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM 


119 


narily requires no attention. If for any reason it should be¬ 
come inoperative, the best course is always to replace it with 
a new one, because condenser repairs are not economically 
practicable. The entire condenser unit can be easily re¬ 
moved, whenever desired, by disconnecting the two condenser 
leads from the breaker box binding posts, and then unscrew¬ 
ing the two nuts on the under side of the breaker box that 
hold the condenser case in place. 

Breaker Contacts.—The breaker arm, which carries one of 
the two breaker contacts, is mounted on a pivot post from 
which it is thoroughly insulated by a fiber bushing. The heli¬ 
cal spring, which is- attached to the lug at the pivot end of 
the arm, holds it normally in such a position that the breaker 
contacts are kept closed. But the fiber block near the middle 
of the breaker arm lies in the path of the breaker cam and 
is consequently struck by each lobe of the cam as the vertical 
shaft revolves. Each of these blows from the cam cause the 
breaker contacts to be forced apart, and thereby produce the 
necessary interruptions in the primary circuit. The second 
contact is carried by the stationary contact stud, which is ad¬ 
justably mounted in an arched support. With this stud prop¬ 
erly adjusted the difference between the contact points when 
they are fully separated by the cam, is twenty thousandths of 
an inch (.020"). 

If it should ever become necessary to renew the breaker 
contacts, a complete replacement of the entire breaker arm 
and the contact stud assemblies will in general be found to be 
the most effectual method of handling the work. The breaker 
arm can be removed by simply lifting it off its pivot bearing 
after its pigtail has been disconnected from the breaker box 
binding post. The spring attached to the breaker arm lug will 
slip off of its own accord as soon as the arm is raised suffi¬ 
ciently from its normal position. After the breaker arm has 
been taken off, the stationary contact stud can be removed by 
releasing its lock nut and unscrewing it from its support. To 
replace the breaker arm it is merely necessary to insert the 
lug in the spring, and then, with the spring held taut, to push 


120 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


the arm firmly down upon its pivot post until it snaps into 
position. 

Breaker Cam.—The breaker cam, by which the interruptions 
in the primary circuit are produced has four projections on 
its working surface, so spaced that one of them strikes the 
breaker arm and causes the breaker contacts to be abruptly 
separated each time a spark is required. The cam is held in 
place on the upper end of the vertical shaft by means of a 
slotted nut and set of special lock washers. It should never 
be disturbed if avoidable, because its accurate setting is ab¬ 
solutely essential to the correct operation of the entire sys¬ 
tem. If, at any time, however, its position should become 
altered accidentally, it must be carefully reset at once in ac¬ 
cordance with the timing directions given later on. 

The breaker cam and the distributor rotor are both mounted 
on the vertical shaft and are rotated at exactly one-half engine 
speed. Accordingly, since the engine is of the usual four¬ 
cycle type requiring two revolutions of the crank shaft for one 
complete cycle of operation, the distributor rotor and breaker 
can make one revolution during the completion of each full 
cycle of the engine. 

Distributor Head.—The distributor head contains five high 
tension terminals. The central terminal receives the current 
from the secondary winding of the ignition coil and transmits 
it to the rotor arm by which it is distributed to the four outer 
terminals. These outer terminals are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 
respectively, corresponding to the firing order of the engine, 
and are connected to the four spark plugs in accordance with 
their markings. The distributor rotor in completing one full 
revolution establishes contact successively between the rotor 
brush and each one of these four outer distributor terminals, 
each contact being made at the same moment that the primary 
circuit is interrupted by the action of the breaker cam. Thus 
when the spark plug leads are properly connected, the high 
tension current, as soon as produced in the secondary circuit, 
is conducted to the spark plug of the proper cylinder just at 
the moment when the gas in that particular cylinder is ready 


NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM 


121 


for firing. If, therefore, the spark plug leads ever have to 
be removed from the distributor head, they must always be at¬ 
tached again carefully in the correct order. 

Automatic Advance Mechanism. (Fig. 65)—Combustion 
does not follow instantaneously upon the occurrence of the 
spark, however, because a small time interval is always needed 
for the gas in the cylinder to ignite. Consequently, unless 
some means are provided for offsetting the lag between spark 
and combustion, the explosion of the gas could not always be 
made to take place at exactly the correct moment under vary¬ 
ing conditions of engine speed. 



Fig. 65. Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism—North East 

To compensate for this lag, therefore, there is incorporated 
in the distributor a centrifugally actuated mechanism, which 
is capable of automatically advancing or retarding the time 
of the spark in exact accordance with the rate of speed at 
which the engine is running. 

The operating characteristics of the automatic advance are 
accurately proportioned to conform throughout the entire 
speed range with the requirements of the engine; and in order 
to insure the permanence of this relationship the device is 
so constructed as to be practically nonadjustable. 

Manual Spark Control.—Besides this automatic advance 
there is also the usual manual control mechanism for changing 
the time of the spark independently of the centrifugal device. 




122 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


This manual control is for use principally for retarding the 
spark when starting or idling the engine or for facilitating 
carburetor adjustments. During normal operation of the 
engine, the spark lever on the steering wheel quadrant should 
be advanced as far as permissible without causing the en¬ 
gine to knock, and the actual regulation of the spark position 
be left entirely to the automatic advance mechanism. The 
arrangement of the manual control is such, provided the 
breaker cam is properly set, that when the spark lever is in 
the position of full retard, and the engine is running very 
slowly, the spark will occur in each cylinder at 5 engine de¬ 
grees after the piston has passed the upper dead center of 
its compression stroke. With the spark lever advanced to the 
limit of its travel on the quadrant, the spark will occur 15 
degrees before the upper dead center position has been reached 
by the piston on its compression stroke. 

Timing the Distributor.—Whenever it becomes necessary to 
disconnect the distributor shaft from the engine pump shaft 
the exact relative positions of the two halves of the coupling 
joining these two shafts, as well as the location of the dis¬ 
tributor rotor, should be carefully noted and marked. This is 
necessary in order to make possible the reestablishment of 
the correct relations between the distributor shaft and the 
pump shaft when original conditions are being restored. 
Moreover, care must be taken to avoid turning the engine 
while the distributor is disconnected, because the proper tim¬ 
ing relations can only be retained by keeping the position of 
the pump shaft unchanged during this time. 

Should it ever happen, however, that the distributor has 
been taken off without the proper precautions having been 
observed, or that the timing arrangement has been disturbed 
in any other fashion, it will thereupon become necessary to 
make a complete readjustment of the timing relations of the 
distributor and the engine. This is to be done always after 
the distributor has been reconnected to the engine, the first 
step being to ascertain definitely the relative position of the 
engine pistons and valves. With this done, the positions of 


NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM 


123 


the breaker cam and the distributor rotor are then to be reset 
as directed below. 

Since all the parts of the engine follow a regular sequence 
of operation, only the position of the piston and valves in the 
No. 1 cylinder need be considered in this process, and the 
three remaining cylinders may be practically disregarded. 
There are numerous methods, varying in their degree of ac¬ 
curacy, for locating the position of the engine pistons, but the 
most dependable one is that of removing the cylinder head so 
as to expose the pistons and valves to full view'. With the 
head thus removed, the engine should be cranked slowly by 
hand until the No. 1 piston has risen to the top of its com¬ 
pression stroke and has just started to descend on its com¬ 
bustion stroke. At this moment the spark, when fully re¬ 
tarded, should normally occur in No. 1 cylinder. 

Under circumstances where it is not convenient or desirable 
to remove the cylinder head the following approximate method 
for determining the location of No. 1 piston may be employed 
with a fair degree of success. Open the cocks of the priming 
cups on all the cylinders, and crank the engine slowly by 
hand until the No. 1 piston has just reached the top of its 
compression stroke. This can be ascertained by holding the 
thumb over the No. 1 priming cup and noting carefully the 
moment when the compression ceases to increase. After lo¬ 
cating the dead center position of No. 1 piston in this way, 
turn the crank shaft a very slight distance further until the 
No. 4 exhaust valve is just at the point of closing. Under 
these conditions, provided the No. 4 exhaust valve lifter is in 
correct adjustment, the No. 1 piston should be approximately 
in the desired position of 5 engine degrees beyond dead center. 

With the No. 1 piston thus carefully set in accordance with 
one of the above methods, preferably the former, bring the 
distributor into the position of full retard. To do this, dis¬ 
connect the manual control attachment and turn the break- 
box as far as it will go in the direction in which the vertical 
shaft rotates. Then after making sure that the ignition 
switch is turned off, remove the distributor-head and the dis- 


124 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


tributor rotor and the breaker box, and with a broad bladed 
screw driver back off the breaker cam nut until the cam is 
free to turn on its shaft. Next, replace the rotor temporarily, 
and turn the cam slowly until the breaker contacts just 
begin to open when the rotor occupies the position where 
it normally makes contact with the No. 1 distributor terminal. 
This adjustment can be made to the best advantage by turn¬ 
ing the cam forward to separate the contacts then back again 
slowly until the contacts just come together, at which point 
the cam should be allowed to remain. 

After the proper setting has thus been obtained, remove 
the rotor again and lock the cam securely in position by 
tightening the slotted nut that holds it. Finally, replacing 
the rotor, rock the vertical shaft backward and forward as 
far as the slack in the gears will permit, and note carefully 
the action of the break contacts. The setting of the cam 
must be so accurate that when the gears are rocked forward 
to take up the slack, the contacts will be just held apart and 
yet when the gears are rocked backward as far as the slack 
permits, the contacts will be actually closed. 

A convenient method of verifying this adjustment is to turn 
on the ignition current and connect an ordinary 14 or 16 volt 
2. c. p. lamp across the two binding posts of the breaker 
box. The lamp thus attached, will serve as a sensitive in¬ 
dictator for representing the action of the contact-points when 
the vertical shaft is rocked forward and backward to take 
up the slack in the gears. The moment the contacts begin to 
be separated, the lamp will light; but as soon as they are 
allowed to come together the lamp will at once go out again. 

Should the test prove the first setting to be inaccurate, the 
cam must be readjusted, and the test repeated several times 
if necessary until the correct setting is finally obtained. Too 
much care cannot be employed in making this adjustment, 
because even a very slight inaccuracy in the setting of the 
cam will produce a considerably magnified effect upon the 
operation of the engine. This is due to the fact that the 
engine speed is twice as great as that of the vertical shaft. 


NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM 


125 


General Care. —Under normal operating conditions the igni¬ 
tion system requires very little care aside from the usual 
precautions against moisture and dirt. There are, in fact, but 
three points of importance that need attention during serv¬ 
ice: 

1. Lubrication. 

2. Cleaning and adjustment of the breaker contacts. 

3. Inspection of the wiring and the spark plugs. 


CHAPTER XIX 


ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEMS 
Construction, Operation and Care 

Atwater Kent ignition systems have been adopted of late 
by many prominent automobile manufacturers as a means of 
distributing or conveying electrical spark to the cylinders at 
the proper firing time. 

This type of quick break distributing system has proved 
very efficient and dependable, and will usually outlast the 
life of the motor as there are very few moving parts, which 
eliminate troubles caused by worn parts getting out of ad¬ 
justment. 

This type of ignition system operates in much the same 
manner as the high tension magneto, and differs only in 
that the parts have been taken from the compact magneto 
case and distributed in other locations in separate units. As 
this type takes its current from the lighting and starting bat¬ 
tery, it does not contain an armature or field magnets to manu¬ 
facture the electrical force. 

Fig. G6 illustrates the principles of operation of the type 
CC Atwater Kent closed circuit system, which consists of the 
unisparker containing the contact maker and distributor. The 
only moving parts are located in this unit. The coil consists 
of a soft iron core, with a primary and secondary winding 
sealed in an insulated tube or container. A resistance unit 
is located in the top and regulates the current automatically. 
The system is controlled by a switch located on the dash. 
The contact breaker shown in Fig. 67 consists of an exceed¬ 
ingly light steel contact arm. One end rests on a hardened 
steel cam which rotates one-half as fast as the crank shaft. 

126 


ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEMS 


127 


This cam has as many sides as the engine has cylinders. 
When the contact points are opened by the movement of the 
cam the primary circuit is broken and produces a discharge of 
secondary high tension current at one of the spark plug 
gaps. 



REGULATING 

RESISTANCE 


Fig. 66. Atwater Kent Circuit Diagram—Type CC 


Fig. 68 shows the simple Atwater Kent contactless dis¬ 
tributor. The high tension distributor of the Atwater-Kent 
system forms the top of the contact maker. Each spark plug 
wire terminates in an electrode, which passes through the 
distributor cap. A rotating distributor block takes the high 




























128 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


tension current from the central terminal and distributes it 
to the spark plugs in proper firing order. The distributor 




Fig. 67. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Type CC 

block or arm does not make direct contact with the distributor 
posts. The current jumps the small gap between the dis- 



Fig. 68. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block 

tributor block and the terminal electrodes and does away with 
frictional wear resulting from actual contact. 

































ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEMS 129 

Fig. 69 shows the method of connecting the high tension 
wires to the distributor; the insulation is removed, or the 
wire bared in a space 1 1 / 4" long. The removable terminal 
cover is pushed up on the wire as shown at A, the bared end 
of the wire is then passed through the hole in the secondary 
terminal as shown at B. The end of this wire is then twisted 



A 


Fig. 69. Distributor Wire Connections to Distributor 



back on itself, for two complete turns as shown at C, so 
that the end will not project beyond the diameter of the in¬ 
sulation. The wire will then be tightly held when the terminal 
covers are screwed down as shown in Fig. D. Never use 
pliers to tighten these covers and do not solder the wires to 
the terminal posts. 

Adjustment.—The only parts of this system that are ad¬ 
justable are the contact points. These need to be adjusted 
only for natural wear. Do not adjust the points unless you 
are convinced, by trying everything else, that it is the points 
that need attention. 

In making adjustments, note the following directions. The 
normal gap between the points should not be less than .005", 
or more than .008", the standard setting is .006", which is 




















130 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


about the thickness of two ordinary sheets of writing paper. 

The contact points are made of tungsten steel, the hardest 
known metal. When contact points are working properly 
small particles of tungsten steel will be carried from one 
point to the other, which sometimes causes a roughness and 



Fig. 70. Atwater Kent Type CC Wiring Diagram 

a dark gray coloring of the surfaces. This roughness does 
not in any way effect the proper working of the points, owing 
to the fact that the rough surfaces fit into each other per¬ 
fectly. 





































ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEMS 


131 


It should not be necessary to file or redress the points un¬ 
less they become burned, due to some abnormal condition or 
accident. The dark gray appearance is the natural color of 
the tungsten steel. 

Oilings. —A very small amount of ordinary vaseline or 
grease applied to the cam and a drop or two of oil applied 
to the cups every few weeks, is all the lubrication necessary. 
Do not get oil on the contact points, and wipe off any free 
oil or grease on the contact maker. 

The springs in this system are set at exactly the right ten¬ 
sion. Do not try to bend or tamper with them. 

The wiring of the type CC ignition system is very simple, 
as shown in Fig. 70, and is known as the one wire with ground 
return method. Well insulated primary wire is used for the 
primary circuit between the coil and the ignition switch. The 
best quality of five-sixteenth inch secondary wire is used to 
conduct the high tension current from the coil to the dis¬ 
tributor, and from the distributor to the spark plug. 

Setting or Timing the Type CC System. —The piston in 
number one cylinder should be raised to high dead center, 
between the compression and firing strokes, the clamp which 
holds the unisparker should be loosened and the unisparker 
turned backward, or opposite the rotating direction of the 
timer shaft until the contact points commence to open. The 
spark occurs at the exact instant of the opening of the point. 

After completing the electrical connection the current can 
be turned on, and the unisparker timed exactly from the 
spark at the plugs. For this purpose the plugs should be 
removed from the engine and laid on top of the cylinders. 


CHAPTER XX 


ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEM, TYPE K-2 

The operating principle of the Atwater Kent ignition 
system type K-2, differs from type CC system in that it 
operates on the open circuit plan, whereas the type CC 
system explained in the preceding chapter, operates on the 
closed circuit plan. 

A-K ignition system type K-2 consists of three parts: 

No. 1. The unisparker combining the special contact maker, 
a condenser, and a high tension distributor. 

No. 2. The coil, consisting of a simple primary and second¬ 
ary winding, and a condenser. These parts are all imbedded 
in a special insulating compound. The coil has no vibrator 
or other moving parts. 

No. 3. The ignition switch. This switch controls the sys¬ 
tem by opening and closing the primary current. 

The Principle of the Atwater Kent System. —The func¬ 
tion of this system is to produce a single hot spark for each 
power impulse of the motor. It differs from other types of 
battery ignition systems in that the contact points do not 
touch except during the brief instant of the spark. The 
ignition circuit is, therefore, normally open, whence the name 
“open circuit” results. The contact maker consists of a pair 
of contact points, normally open, which are connected in 
series with a battery, and the primary circuit of the non¬ 
vibrating induction coil. The mechanism for operating the 
contacts consists of a notched shaft having one notch for 
each cylinder, rotating at one-half the engine speed, a lifter 
which is pulled forward by the rotation of the shaft, and a 
coil spring which pulls the lifter back to its original posi¬ 
tion after it has been drawn forward and released by the 

132 


ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEM 


133 


notched shaft; hardened steel latch, against which the lifter 
strikes on its recoil and which in turn operates the contact 
points. 


LATCH 


CONTACT 

SCREW 


CONTACT . 
SPRING 



NOTCH CO 
SHAFT 


LIFTER 

LIFTER 

SPRING 


Fig. 71. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type 

K-2 System. 


Operation of the Contact Maker. —It will be noted in Fig, 
71 that the lifter is being pulled forward by the notched 
shaft. When pulled forward as far as the shaft will carry it 



Fig. 72. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type K-2 

System 

(Fig. 72), the lifter is suddenly pulled back by the lifter 
spring. In returning, it strikes against the latch, throwing 
this against the contact spring and closes the contact for a 


134 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


brief instant. This movement is far too quick for the naked 
eye to follow (Fig. 73). 



Fig. 73. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type K-2 

System 


Fig. 74 shows the lifter ready to ber pulled forward by the 
next notch. 



Fig. 74. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type K-2 

System 

Note that the circuit is closed only during the brief instant 
of the spark. No current can flow at any other time, not 
even if the switch is left on when the motor is not running. 
No matter how slow or how fast the notched shaft is turn¬ 
ing, the lifter spring will always pull the lifter back at exactly 
the same sped, so. that the operation of the contact, and there- 




ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEM 


135 


fore the spark, will always be the same no matter how fast 
or how slow the engine is running. The brief instant that 
the contact points touch, results in very little current con¬ 
sumption. The high tension current from the coil is conveyed 
to the rotating distributor block, which seats on the end of the 
unisparker shaft to each of the spark plug terminals in the 
order of firing. 

The important advantage which the distributor possesses is 
the fact that there are no sliding contacts or carbon brushes. 
The distributor blade is so arranged that it passes close to 
the spark plug terminals without quite touching (as shown in 



Fig. 75. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block 


Fig. 75), thus permitting the spark to jump, the slight gap 
without any loss of current pressure. This also eliminates all 
wear and trouble caused by sliding or rubbing contacts. 

Fig. 76 shows the wire connections and direction of cur¬ 
rent flowage. The distributor blade is about to make con¬ 
tact with the terminal leading to the spark plug in No. 2 
cylinder. At the instant that contact is made the breaker 
points in the contact maker shown in the lower part of the 
diagram close, thus allowing a primary or low tension cur¬ 
rent to flow between the contact maker, coil, and battery. The 
sudden breaking of this current occurs when the points open 
again, thereby creating a current of high tension voltage in 
the secondary coil which, is conducted to the center terminal 
of the distributor where it is - distributed to the spark plug 


















136 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


terminals through the rotation of the distributor blade. The 
high tension cables leading from the distributor are heavily 
insulated, thus the current in seeking ground return chooses 
the easiest path, by jumping the slight gap at the spark 
plugs. 



DISTRIBUTOR 



CONTACT MAKER 


BATTERY 


VWV\rl* GROUND 


Fig. 76. Atwater Kent Wiring Diagram Type K-2 


Setting and Timing the Unisparker. —The type K-2 uni- 
sparker is installed, so as to allow a small amount of angular 
movement or, in other words, the socket into which the uni¬ 
sparker fits is provided with a clamp which will permit it to 
be turned or locked in any given position. 

Timing.— The piston in No. 1 cylinder is raised to high dead 
center between the compression and power stroke. Then 
loosen the clamp which holds the unisparker and turn the uni¬ 
sparker backward, or contrary to the direction of rotation 
until a click is heard. This click happens at the exact in¬ 
stant of the spark. Clamp the unisparker tight at this point 
being careful not to change its position. Note that current 
for this system is usually supplied by the starting and light¬ 
ing battery. When changing batteries be sure that the volt¬ 
age of the battery is the same as that marked on the coil. 

The external wiring of the A-K type K-2 is very simple, 

























ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEM 


137 


as shown in the diagrams, Figs. 77 and 77A. Fig. 77 shows 
the wire connections, when the reversing switch and under¬ 
hood coil is used. Fig. 77A shows the connections, when using 



Fig. 77. Atwater Kent K-2 Wiring—Cut 1, Under Hood Coil; Cut 2, 

Kick Switch Coil 

plate or kick switch coil. A well insulated braided primary 
wire is used for the primary or battery circuit. See that this 
wire is well protected against rubbing or abrasion wherever it 























138 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


comes into contact with metal parts of the car. When the 
starting and lighting battery is used to furnish the ignition 

current, two wires should run directly to the battery ter¬ 

minals. 

The tw r o types of Atwmter Kent systems described are pro¬ 
vided with automatic spark advance mechanism. Provisions 
are also made for manual lever control, by simply connect¬ 
ing the unisparker to the throttle lever at the base of the 

steering gear. 

Fig. 78 shows the automatic spark advance mechanism. It 
is located on the underside of the contact maker base plate, 
and consists of a set of weights which swing out from the 
center against spring tension, and advances the unisparker on 



Fig. 78. Atwater Kent Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism— 

A K Type K -2 

the shaft, according to the amount of centrifugal action or 
speed of the shaft. When the shaft is not in motion the 
springs draw the weights toward center, which automatically 
shifts the unisparker on the shaft until the spark is in a fully 
retarded position. 

Contact Point Adjustment.—The only adjustment aside 
from the initial timing is in the contact points. They are ad¬ 
justable only for natural wear, and one adjustment should 
last at least six months. The contact screw is provided with 
a number of shim washers against which it is set up tight. 
When the points eventually become worn, they should be 
dressed flat and smooth. A sufficient number of the washers 



ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEM 


139 


should be removed so that when the contact screw is set up 
tightly it will maintain the proper gap between the points. 
The distance between the contact points should be about the 
distance of a thin visiting card. They should never touch 
when at rest. 

Fig. 79 shows an oiling diagram of the contact maker. 
The latch, lifter, and lifter spring are not adjustable or sub- 



B’ig. 79. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Oiling Diagram—A-K Type K-2 

ject to wear. They should be well cleaned and oiled every 
five hundred miles. Use a light oil and avoid getting it on 
the contact points. 

The Condenser. —The condenser of this system acts some¬ 
what like a shock absorber to the contact points. It absorbs 
the spark or arc and makes the break in the primary current, 
clean and abrupt. The condenser is very accessible, but 
should never be tampered with, as it does not require any 
attention. 

Testing for Ignition Trouble.— If the engine misses with¬ 
out regard to speed, test each cylinder separately by short 
circuiting the plug with a screw driver, allowing a spark to 
jump. If all cylinders produce a good regular spark the 
trouble is not with the ignition system. 

If any cylinder sparks regularly this will indicate that the 
ignition system is in working order so far as the unisparker 
and coil are concerned. The trouble is probably in the high 
tension wiring between the distributor and plug, or in the 
plugs themselves. Examine the plugs and wiring carefully. 



140 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


Leaky secondary wiring is frequently the cause of missing and 
backfiring. 

Frequently, when high tension wires are run from the dis¬ 
tributor to the spark plugs through a metal tube, trouble is 
experienced with missing and backfiring, which is due to in¬ 
duction between the various wires in the tube. This is 
especially likely to happen if the main secondary wire from 
the distributor to the coil runs through this tube with the 
spark plug wires. 

Whenever possible the distributor wires should be separated 
by at least cme-half inch of space. They should be sup¬ 
ported by bracket insulators, rather than run through a tube. 
In no case should the main distributor wire run through a 
conduit with other wires. 

If irregular sparking is noted at the spark plugs, examine 
the battery and connections. 

If the trouble commences suddenly, it is probably due to a 
loose connection in the wiring, if gradually, the battery may 
be weakening or the contact points may require attention. 


CHAPTER XXI 


PHILBRIN SINGLE SPARK IGNITION SYSTEM 
Operation, Adjustment and Care 

The Philbrin ignition system consists of a specially designed 
contact maker and interrupter, a distributor mounted on the 
same shaft, a nonvibrating heat and moisture proof coil, an 
armored heat, moisture, and puncture proof condenser, and a 
special Duplex switch. 

Fig. 80 shows an illustration of the Philbrin contact maker 
which operates in this manner. The cam A strikes against the 



Fig. 80. Philbrin Contact Maker—Point Adjustment 

end of the plunger B and forces the points together at C, 
and holds the contact for approximately three and one-half 
degrees of the revolution of the cam. The spark occurs 
simultaneously with the separation of the contact points. 
The contact maker has but one adjustment; that of the adjust¬ 
able contact screw, which is in direct line with the contact 

141 




142 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


plunger. The contact points are brought together gradually 
by the surface formation of the cam. When the point of 
ample saturation of the coil is reached, the breaking of the 
contacts is instantaneous. The duration of the spark is in 
proportion to the speed of the engine, but breaking of the 
points is always instantaneous and entirely independent of 
the engine’s speed thereby producing the required spark at all 
speeds without any spark lag. 

Fig. 81 shows the distributor blade mounted over the con¬ 
tact maker. The distributor blade is so arranged that it 



Fig. 81. Pliilbrin Contact Maker and Distributor Blade 

clears the spark plug lead terminals in the cover by a slight 
margin, and does not make actual contact, thereby eliminating 
all friction due to such contacts. 

Operation.—Turning on the switch sets up a low tension 
current in the coil and primary wire coil when the con¬ 
tact points close. The sudden breaking of this current 
causes demagnetism of the core and the primary coil to set 
up a high tension current in the secondary coil. This cur¬ 
rent is led to the distributor blade and passes to the spark 
plug terminals as the blade comes in contact range. 

The Philbrin high frequency system uses the same coil and 
distributor as the single spark system. But as the circuits 













PHILBRIN IGNITION SYSTEM 


143 


of the two systems are entirely distinct and separate, they 
do not conflict with each other. The high frequency system 
has its own condenser and interrupter located in the switch 
case, and supplies a continuous flow of sparks. 

Fig. 82 shows the interior of the switch case. This part of 
the mechanism controls the interruption of the battery cur- 
rent. The current is supplied to the interruptor through a 
polarity reverser, which reverses the direction of the current 



each time the switch button is turned. This equalizes the 
wear on the contact points. 

Attention is again called to the distributor blade shown in 
Fig. 82, which is used for both systems. Because of the shape 
of this blade, there is a continuous flow of sparks after the 
explosive spark has been delivered to one cylinder until the 
forward edge of the distributor blade is within range of the 
distributing point of the next terminal. By this action the 
first spark delivered to the cylinder is an efficient one, and 
the follow up continues at intervals of approximately one- 
thousandth of a second. These sparks are all perfectly 
synchronous. 

The operation of the high frequency system does not differ 






144 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


in function action from the single spark system explained on 
the foregoing page. Either system may be had singly, or 
in duplex formation. Consequently either the single or the 
double system may be encountered. When the duplex system 
is used the driver has his choice and can use either the high 
frequency or single spark system, by turning the rubber 
roll switch on the distributor to the system indicated. 

This follow-up feature has been found particularly advan¬ 
tageous for starting in cold weather, or where a poor grade 
of gasoline is encountered, and in case of a poor carburetor 
adjustment or foul spark plugs. The high frequency system 
also has the unique feature of keeping the spark plugs clean 
without disintegrating the electroids, as is often the case with 
the high tension magneto. 



Fig. 83. Duplex High Frequency Switch 


Fig. 83 shows the Duplex switch. Ordinarily a storage 
battery is used for one source of current, and a set of dry 
cells for the other. This is so arranged that either source 
of current can be used with either the single spark system 
or the high frequency system at will. One source of current 
‘only can be used if so desired, that is, the storage battery 
only or the dry cells alone. Where the source of current is 







PHILBRIN IGNITION SYSTEM 


145 


dry cells only, the single spark system is used as it is more 
economical in current consumption. All of the switch con¬ 
tacts are of the pressure plunger type, thereby eliminating the 
uncertainty of brush contacts. Each switch is provided with 
a lock operating through the hub. of the lever. When the 
switch is locked in the off position it is impossible to remove 
the cover without breaking it as the cover of the switch locks 
to the back. 

Ratchet buttons select which one of the systems is to be 
used, by a movement of 45°. This button operates only in 
a clock-wise direction. 



C-2 Circuit 2 
C-1 Circuit 1 
Bat.-I Battery 1 
Bat-2 Battery 2 
.Sec-Secortdary 
C - Circuit 
Sec. Gr. Secondary 
Ground 


Fig. 84 shows a wiring diagram of the Pliilbrin system. 
The wire connections come -to the contact maker directly from 
the switch, instead of from the coil. This provides for con¬ 
trol of the current to the contact maker in such a manner 
that if a short circuit occurs in either of the systems, by 
turning a button it is entirely cut off and the other system 
put into operation. 

Tungsten contact points are used on the single spark sys¬ 
tem as they are no.t effected by the use of light oil. The con¬ 
tact points for the high frequency system are platinum- 
iridium. They are mounted inside of the switch case and 
need little or no attention. The contacts, due to the reversed 





















146 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


polarity, have an extremely long life and can be used with¬ 
out attention until they are worn down to the base metal. 
The duel type of system, however, may be purchased in sep¬ 
arate units, and an owner may choose either the high fre¬ 
quency system or the single spark system separately if so de¬ 
sired. 

This type of ignition system is manufactured for four, six, 
eight, and twelve cylindered cars. 


CHAPTER XXII 


ELECTRICAL STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS 
Construction, Operation and Care 

A great many different types of mechanical, and com¬ 
pressed air starters were devised and tried out as equipment 
by the manufacturers of automobiles a few years ago. 
These devices were either mechanically imperfect, or re¬ 
quired considerable attention from the owner to keep them in 
working order and have all but disappeared from the market, 
being supplanted by the electrical starter, which has been 
perfected to a high state of efficiency and dependability. 

The general principle of all electrical starters is much 
alike and they usually operate in much the same manner. 
The electrical force or current is produced by a generator 
driven from the engine. This current is collected, or held 
in storage by chemical reproduction plates in a storage bat¬ 
tery. The battery, in turn, is connected to a small electric 
motor carried at the side of the engine. 

The Generator. —The operating principle of current pro¬ 
duction of the generator is practically the same as explained 
in the magneto, which may also be termed a generator or 
dynamo. 

A generator consists of an iron frame, a set of magnetic 
field windings, a wound armature with a commutator on the 
end, and a brush which collects the current from the com¬ 
mutator. 

The current is induced in the armature by rotating it in a 
magnetic field. The amount of voltage induced in the arma¬ 
ture-coil depends on its rotating speed, as the faster the arma- 

147 


148 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


ture turns, the greater the number of magnetic field lines cut, 
and the greater the amount of voltage induced in the arma¬ 
ture coil. 

The Regulator. —The generator is provided with a regulator 
to control the output rate of voltage when the engine is 
running at excess speeds. This is necessary to prevent the 
higher charging rate from overcoming the capacity of the 
storage battery. The regulating of the voltage output may 
be accomplished by mechanical or electrical means. The 
mechanical regulator usually consists of a governor which 
is timed to release the armature from the drive shaft when 
the engine reaches a certain rate of speed. The electrical 
regulator usually consists of a reversed series of field wind¬ 
ing which acts against the force of the magnetic field, or of 
a bucking coil. 

The Automatic Cut-out.— All types of generators which 
supply current to a storage battery are equipped with an 
automatic cut-out arrangement which is entirely automatic in 
action and requires no attention. 

The function of the automatic cut-out is to prevent the 
current from flowing back to the generator when the current 
production of the generator is less than the charged strength 
of the storage battery. The cut-out may be located any¬ 
where on the conductor, between the storage battery and the 
generator, and consists of a simple electro-magnet, which is 
operated by the direction of current flowage. 

One Unit System. —The generator furnishes the current 
for ignition and starting, and is also reversible to act as a 
starting motor. The system is referred to as a one unit sys¬ 
tem. 

Two Unit System. —When the starting motor and the gen¬ 
erator act singly, and are contained in a separate casting, .the 
system is referred to as a two unit system. 

Three Unit System. —When the generator and starting 
motor are located as a separate unit, and when the ignition 
current is supplied by a magneto, this system is referred to 
as a three unit system. 


ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 


149 


The Starting Motor. —The starting motor is constructed in 
the same manner as the generator, and is simply a reversal 
of action. When cranking, the current from the storage bat¬ 
tery flows through the motor winding and magnetizes the 
armature core. This acting upon the magnetism of the frame 
causes the turning effort. 

Lubrication. —Regularly every two weeks, or every five hun¬ 
dred miles, two or three drops of thin neutral oil should be 
dropped into the oil wells supplying the armature bearings 
and usually located at each end of the armature shaft. 



Care. —Regularly every two weeks, inspect all connections 
as a full volume of current will not flow over a loose or cor¬ 
roded connection. Never allow any oil or dirt to collect on 
the motor or generator, as it interferes with the terminal 
connection and misdirects the current, and the instrument soon 
becomes inoperative. 

Fig. 85 shows the location of the two unit Bijur electrical 
starting and generating system mounted on an engine. The 
starting motor is bolted to the flywheel housing, and is pro¬ 
vided with a square armature shaft which carries a pinion 


































































































150 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


which can be moved horizontally on the shaft. ’This pinion 
meshes directly with teeth cut in the steel flywheel ring. No 
intermediate gears or roller clutches are used. The control 
lever connects through linkage to the shifting fork which 
shifts the pinion on the square shaft of the motor. The 
same foot pedal linkage operates the starting switch. Nor¬ 
mally a spring holds the motor pinion out of mesh with the 
flywheel teeth and also holds the starting switch in the “off” 
position. 

The Generator.—The generator is bolted to an extension on 
the crank case at the front side of the gas motor, and is 
driven by a silent chain from the crank shaft. After the 
gas motor attains a speed equivalent to a car speed of ten 
miles per hour on high speed, the generator begins to gen¬ 
erate, and will generate a current which is highest at low 
speeds, and diminishes somewhat at higher speeds. 

The machines are both self-contained as there are no reg¬ 
ulators or automatic switches which require separate mount¬ 
ing. 

The automatic switch for opening and closing the circuit 
between the generator and storage battery is mounted inside 
the generator. This switch is properly adjusted before the 
generator leaves the factory, and no further adjustments are 
necessary. 

Two wires lead from the generator. One of these is con¬ 
nected at the starting motor to one of the heavy cables com¬ 
ing from the storage battery, while the .other generator wire 
is grounded on the chassis, the chassis forming a part of the 
circuit. The generator polarity is reversible and the connec¬ 
tions at the machine may be made haphazard and without 
regard to polarity. If connections are reversed at the gen¬ 
erator, no damage will result, as the machine will auto¬ 
matically assume the correct polarity to charge the battery. 

Fig. 86 shows the position of the Bijur starting system, and 
the relative neutral positions of starting pedal, motor pinion, 
and starting switch, when the starting equipment is not in 
action. 


ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 


151 


Fig. S6A shows the normal position of the various parts 
after the starting pedal has been depressed and just before 
the starting motor begins to operate. The pinion is now in 




full mesh with the flywheel ring and further depressing the 
starter pedal will close the switch. 

Fig. 87 shows all the parts in their positions for cranking. 
The small gap between the collar on the shifting rod and 














































































152 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


clevis pin permits the switch rod to move and thus open 
the starting switch without moving the motor pinion when 
the starting pedal is released. 

Fig. S7A shows the condition when on depressing the foot 



POSITION EA- ABOUT TO CRANK.' 
CEAAS NOT TET MESHED.TEETH 
ARC BUTTINC.BUT SWITCH HAS 
MADE CONTACT. SHIFTER SPRINC 
STRONCLY COMPRESSED READY 
TO DRAW PINION INTO MESH. 



Fig. 87. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action 


pedal, and sliding the pinion on the motor shaft towards the 
flywheel the pinion does not mesh with the flywheel, and the 
teeth butt. Depressing the foot pedal will close the start¬ 
ing switch strongly compressing the shifter spring. After the 












































































ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 


153 


switch is closed the motor will begin to rotate and allow 
the pinion to slip into mesh with the flywheel. The motor 
will then crank in the normal way. 



Fig. 88 shows a complete diagram of the Model N Hup- 
mobile wiring system. 































































CHAPTER XXIII 


ELECTRIC STARTING AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT 

Fig. 89 shows a diagram of the Bijur lighting and start¬ 
ing system on the Jeffrey “Chesterfield-six.” The generator 
supplies current for the lights and charges a storage bat¬ 
tery when the gas motor is running at speeds equivalent to 
ten or more miles per hour on high gear. 

When the gas motor is running at speeds corresponding 
to less than ten miles per hour, all currents for lamps are 
drawn from the storage battery. 

The starting motor is in operation only during the period 
of starting, and remains idle at all other times. The ap¬ 
pliances shown in the diagram constituting the equipment are 
a six volt constant voltage generator, a six volt starting motor, 
starting switch, six volt hundred ampere hour battery, lamp 
controller, and a high tension magneto. Due to the rever¬ 
sible characteristics of the generator, no attention need be 
paid to the polarity of the wiring when it is removed and 
again replaced. 

The starting motor pinion meshes with teeth on the fly¬ 
wheel when the starting switch mounted on the housing cover¬ 
ing the motor pinion is compressed. 

Operation of System Shown in Diagram. —After the gas 
motor reaches a speed equivalent to a car speed of approxi¬ 
mately ten miles per hour on the third speed gear, the gen¬ 
erator will generate and maintain a constant voltage, or elec¬ 
trical pressure at higher speeds and will also maintain this 
pressure constant at all loads. 

The current output from the generator at any time will de¬ 
pend upon the condition of the storage battery. If a car has 
been left standing for some time with the lights burning, the 

1§4 


ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 155 





















































































































































156 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


storage battery will become more or less discharged and its 
voltage lowered. Under these conditions the generator volt¬ 
age or pressure will be higher than that of the battery, forc¬ 
ing a comparatively high charging current into the battery. 
This current may be from 5 to 20 amperes, and the battery 
w r ill rapidly approach the fully charged condition. 

As a battery becomes charged its voltage increases reduc¬ 
ing the difference in pressure between the generator and bat¬ 
tery and decreasing the charging current to the battery. 


ELECTRIC STARTING AND LIGHTING OPERATION 

Current from the generator passes through an ammeter 
and this meter shows the current being supplied to the bat¬ 
tery and the lights, or to the battery only when no lights are 
in operation. 

Starting Motor.— The starting motor is provided with a 
square shaft and carries a pinion which can be moved hori¬ 
zontally on this shaft. This pinion meshes directly with teeth 
cut on the flywheel. 

The starting pedal located at the driver’s seat connects 
through linkage to fork which shifts the link on the square 
shaft of the motor. The same foot pedal linkage operates 
the starting switch. Normally a spring holds the motor 
pinion out of mesh with the flywheel teeth, and also holds the 
starting switch in an “off” position. 

Operation of the Starter. —Depressing the starter, one 
pedal operates the starting switch and makes a preliminary 
contact which connects the starting motor to the storage bat¬ 
tery through a resistance located inside of the starting switch. 
This resistance permits a small amount of current to pass 
through the starting motor, causing its armatures to rotate 
at relatively slow speed. This slow rotation insures proper 
meshing of the pinion and flywheel teeth when they are 
brought into engagement. Depressing the foot pedal also 
shifts the pinion on the square shaft of the motor so as 
to bring it into contact with the teeth on the flywheel. 


ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 


157 


When the pinion is in full mesh with the teeth on the fly, 
the moving contact in the starting switch has traveled to a 
position where the resistance is cut out of the circuit, connect¬ 
ing the storage battery directly to the starting motor. The 
starting motor will then spin the gas motor. 

Starting.— First see that the necessary adjustments have 
been made, then depress the starting foot pedal as far as it 
will go and hold it firmly in place until the gas motor starts. 
The instant the gas motor begins firing the foot pedal should 
be released. The starting pedal should be pressed as far as 
it will go without any pausing on the downward stroke. 

Fig. 90 shows diagram of operation and wdring of the 
Bijur electrical system used on Jeffery 4-cylinder car. 

If the pinion and flywheel teeth do not mesh properly 
do not hold the starting pedal down, release it and after a 
few T seconds pause, depress the pedal again. 

If the gas motor does not start firing promptly after spin¬ 
ning it with the electric motor, do not continue to spin it, 
but see that the proper adjustments for starting have been 
made and that there is gasoline in the carburetor, and that the 
ignition is in working order. 

Continued spinning of the gas motor by the electric motor 
will not damage the electrical equipment but constitutes a use¬ 
less drain on the storage battery and should be avoided. 

Wiring. —Fig. 90 shows the circuits for all electric appli¬ 
ances on the Jeffrey-4 car. The various units are wired on 
the two-wire system. The “out of focus” filaments in the head 
lamp bulbs are wired on the three-wire system, the chassis 
acting as a neutral wire, one side of the “out of focus” fila¬ 
ment being grounded in the head lamps. The “in focus” 
filaments are on the two-wire system. 

The dash lamp is on the tail lamp circuit and is so ar¬ 
ranged that these two lamps are always in operation when 
any combination of head lamp filaments are in use. 

Fuse Circuits.— Each head lamp is separately fused, the 
current for both filaments in each head lamp bulb passing 
through one fuse. 


158 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 



S 


,-JQ uj 

Lu Z « 

Oj h 


z P 


uj a 2 

§£°“ 

CC 01 Ul 
OUJ nTO 
U- X CO < 

-7 cn _J - 1 
— — UJ 2 
C-Qq 
r u) o _ 
s <J)Z in 


00 

O 

3 






c + 



CL u. 2 to 



UJ 

CD 
to 

ui tn 

ZZ 

=^0 

Qt-X 

OOh' 

I OUJ 

uit5 

b- 2 03 
O UJ <C 
22\J 


uo 
: < 

! cn 

is 

i< 

uO 

£2 

$ CD 

toz 

Oo 

< u. 


u 

p 

o 

>> 


a> 

E 


a> 


rj 


a 

a 

& 

03 

• M 

Q 


fl 

Sh 


£ 


o 

Oi 

to 

•FH 


































































































ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 


159 


Separate fuses are provided for the electric horn circuit and 
for the rear lamp circuit. The push button for operating the 
electric horn is mounted on the center of the steering post. 

Ground Fuse.— A fuse is located in the ground circuit 
between the lamp controller and the magneto top to ground. 

Lamp Controller.— A pair of wires from the terminals of 



Fig. 91. Hydrometer Syringe 


the storage battery connect to the five position lamp con¬ 
troller. All lighting circuits connected to this controller 
which may be locked in any of the five positions. 

Oiling should be practiced regularly every two weeks or 
every five hundred miles. Two or three drops of thin neutral 
oil should be put in each of the two oilers of the motor and 
in each of the two oilers of the generator. Do not flood the 
bearings with oil. 



























160 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


At the same time the starting motor shaft should be oiled. 
An oil hole is provided in the top of the starting motor gear 
case and about ten drops of cylinder oil should be used. 

Fig. 91 shows a hydrometer syringe used for determining 
the specific gravity or density of the solutions in the battery 
cells. 

To take specific gravity readings* unscrew the filler or vent 
plug and insert the tube into the cell and release bulb slowly 
to draw the acid solution into the chamber until the hydro¬ 
meter floats. The enlarged graduated stem shows a reading 
of 1.280 at the point where it emerges from the solution. 
After testing, the solution must be returned to the cell from 
which it was taken. Specific readings above 1200 show the 
battery more than half charged. 

Gravity below 1.150 indicates battery completely discharged 
or run down. 

Should the gravity fall below 1.150 the gas motor should be 
given a long run to restore the battery. 


i 


CHAPTER XXIV 


NORTH EAST STARTER SYSTEM USED ON DODGE 

BROTHERS’ CARS 

The North East starter system shown in Fig. 9 IV 2 comprises 
the North East Model G starter-generator and the combined 
starting switch and reverse current cut-out. This equipment 
serves to start the engine and provide current for the lamps 
and other electrical accessories as well as for the ignition 
system. The battery as the source of current while the en¬ 
gine is not in operation or is running slowly; but at all 
engine speeds above 350 R. P. M. the starter-generator sup¬ 
plies current for the entire electrical system. 

Wiring .—In the accompanying wiring diagrams the start¬ 
ing circuit is represented by the very heavy cables; the 
charging circuit, where it does not coincide with the starting 
circuit, by the cables of medium weight, and the lighting and 
the ignition circuits by the light cables. As will be seen from 
the diagrams, the starting circuit extends from the positive 
terminal of the battery to the starting switch, and thence, 
when the switch is closed, through the starter-generator arma¬ 
ture and field coils back to the negative terminal of the bat¬ 
tery by way of the grounded negative starter-generator ter¬ 
minal, the car frame, and the battery ground connections. 
The charging circuit is identical w'ith the starting circuit ex¬ 
cept at the starting switch, where instead of passing from 
one switch terminal to the other through the switch con¬ 
tactor it extends through a parallel path which includes the 
reverse current cut-out and the charging indicator. The cable 
leading to the lighting and ignition switch is attached to the 
positive terminal of the indicator. From this switch the light- 

161 


162 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 




Fig. 91 Ms* Dodge Wiring Diagram 
























































NORTH EAST STARTER SYSTEM 


163 


ing and the ignition circuits become distinct, and each, after 
passing through its proper course, reaches the car frame and 
returns through it to the source of supply. 

Without exception all the connections of the starting and 
lighting system must be made as indicated in this diagram if 
entirely satisfactory results are to be obtained from the equip* 
ment. 

Starter-Generator (Fig. 92).—The starter-generator is 
mounted on the left side of the engine by means of an adjust¬ 
able support and a clamping strap. It runs at three times 
engine speed, operating directly from the crank shaft through 
a silent chain drive. Being a single unit machine, it employs 
but one armature with only one commutator, one set of field 
windings and one set of brushes for the performance of all of 
its functions both as a starter and as a generator. 

While starting the engine it acts as a cumulatively com¬ 
pounded motor; but while serving as a generator it operates 
as a differentially compounded machine with its output posi¬ 
tively controlled through the agency of a Third Brush Regu¬ 
lating system, supplemented by the differential influence of the 
series field upon the shunt field. 

The machine is designed for 12 volt service and, when driven 
by the engine, normally begins to deliver current to the bat¬ 
tery as soon as the car speed is brought up to approximately 
10 miles per hour. From this point on, the charging rate 
rises rapidly with increasing speed until the standard maxi¬ 
mum rate of 6 amperes is reached at a car speed of 16 or 17 
miles per hour. From this speed to 20 or 21 miles per hour 
it remains practically constant, but above 21 miles per hour 
it decreases gradually until at the upper speed limit of the 
engine it may become as low as 3 amperes. 

This charging rate conforms throughout with the standard 
recommendations of the battery manufacturers. The early 
maximum reached by the starter-generator output provides 
amply for the demands of current at ordinary driving speeds; 
while the tapering characteristic, winch comes into effect at 
high speeds, serves to protect the battery from superfluous 


flEl-O COIL. TIE ROO 


164 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 





























































































































































































































NORTH EAST STARTER SYSTEM 


165 


charging in instances where cars may be subjected to continu¬ 
ous high speed service. 

Adjustment of Charging Rate.—The third brush system is 
so constructed as to permit the charging rate to be changed 
when desired to a higher or to a lower value than that for 
which it is normally adjusted. Such adjustments should not 
be attempted by the car owner himself, and should never be 
made except in cases of actual necessity where the normal 
charging rate does not meet the special service conditions 
under which the equipment may be required to operate perma¬ 
nently. In every instance where there is any reason to be¬ 
lieve that a modification of the rate would be beneficial, the 
car owner should refer the equipment to the North East Elec¬ 
tric Company or its nearest branch or service station. 

Fuse.—The fuse is located on the commutator end of the 
starter-generator. Its purpose is to protect the electrical sys¬ 
tem if possible by rendering the starter-generator inoperative 
whenever abnormal operating conditions may occur. Due to 
its protective function the fuse is always the first point in the 
system to be inspected in case the starter-generator ever failed 
to produce current. If the fuse is found to be “blown” or 
missing, a new one should be applied and the machine given 
a preliminary test before further search for trouble is made. 
Should the generator fail to deliver current even after a new 
fuse has been installed or should the new fuse “blow” when 
the machine is in operation, the entire electrical system should 
then be inspected thoroughly for possible faults such as open 
circuits, improper connections or abnormal grounds. Under 
such circumstances the difficulty should always be corrected 
before any further attempt is made to operate the equipment. 

Precautions Necessary for the Operation Without Battery 
in Circuit.—The third brush regulating system requires a 
closed charging circuit for the successful performance of its 
duties. The battery, therefore, forms an indispensable link 
in the system and its presence in circuit is always essential to 
the proper operation of the starter-generator. Should the 
machine ever have to be operated with the battery disconnected 


166 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


or with the charging ‘circuit otherwise incomplete, the elec¬ 
trical system must be protected by rendering the machine in¬ 
operative. This is to be done by removing the fuse from its 
clips. 

When the starter-generator thus rendered incapable of pro¬ 
ducing current, no ignition current will be available from the 
usual sources. Under such circumstances, therefore, the en¬ 
gine cannot be operated without some provisional source of 
ignition current. A battery of nine or ten dry cells will serve 
satisfactorily as a temporary substitute provided they are 
used for ignition only. 

Starting Switch and Reverse Current Cut-out. —The re¬ 
verse current cut-out is located in the same case with the 
starting switch. This combined switch and cut-out is mounted 
near the center of the toe-board where the switch push-rod 
button is within convenient reach from the driver’s seat. 


CHAPTER XXV 


THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM—BUICK CARS 

The motor generator which- is located on the right side of 
the engine is the principal part of the Delco System. This 
consists essentially of a dynamo with two field windings, and 
two windings on the armature with two commutators and cor¬ 
responding sets of brushes, in order that the machine may 
work both as a starting motor, and as a generator for charg¬ 
ing the battery and supplying the lights, horn and ignition. 
The ignition apparatus is incorporated in the forward end of 
the motor generator. This in no way affects the working of 
the generator, it being mounted in this manner simply as a 
convenient and accessible mounting. The motor generator has 
three distinct functions to perform which are as follows: 

1. —Motoring the generator 

2. —Cranking the engine. 

3. —Generating electrical energy. 

Motoring the generator is accomplished when the ignition 
button on the switch is pulled out. This allows current to 
come from the storage battery through the ammeter on the 
combination switch, causing it to show a discharge. The first 
reading of the meter will be much more than the reading after 
the armature is turning freely. The current discharging 
through the ammeter during this operation is the current re¬ 
quired to slowly revolve the armature and what is used for 
the ignition. The ignition current flows only when the con¬ 
tacts are closed, it being an intermittent current. The maxi¬ 
mum ignition current is obtained when the circuit is first 
closed and the resistance unit on the front end of the coil is 

167 


168 THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 



TMI* GEAH. U- LJ l_l _LJ LJ_LJ MOTOR COMm>T*TOn\ \BENCItATOR 

Tig. 93. Delco Motor Generator—Showing Parts 








































































































































































































































THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 


169 


cold. The current at this time is approximately 6 amperes, 
but soon decreases to approximately 3amperes. Then as 
the engine is running it further decreases until at 1000 revo¬ 
lutions of the engine it is approximately 1 ampere. 

This motoring of the generator is necessary in order that 
the starting gears may be brought into mesh, and should 
trouble be experienced in meshing these gears, do not try to 
force them, simply allow the starting pedal to come back 
giving the gears time to change their relative positions. 

A clicking sound will be heard during the motoring of the 
generator. This is caused by the overrunning of the clutch 
in the forward end of the generator which is shown in 
Fig. 93. 

The purpose of the generator clutch is to allow the arma¬ 
ture to revolve at a higher speed than the pump shaft during 
the cranking operation and permitting the pump shaft to 
drive the armature when the engine is running on its own 
power. A spiral gear is cut on the outer face of this clutch 
for driving the distributor. This portion of the clutch is 
connected by an Oldham coupling to the pump shaft. There¬ 
fore its relation to the pump shaft is always the same and 
does not throw the ignition out of time during the cranking 
operation. 

The cranking operation takes place when the starting pedal 
is fully depressed. This causes the top motor brush to come 
in contact with the motor commutator. As this brush arm 
lowers, it comes in contact with the ear in the generator 
brush arm raising the generator brush from it commutator. 
At the same time the current from the storage battery flows 
through the heavy series field winding, motor brushes and 
motor winding on the armature. The switching in this cir¬ 
cuit is accomplished by means of the top motor brush which is 
operated from the starting pedal. (Shown in Fig. 94). 

This cranking operation requires a heavy current from the 
storage battery, and if the lights are on during the cranking 
operation, the heavy discharge from the battery causes the 
voltage of the battery to decrease enough to cause the lights 


170 THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


to grow dim. This is noticed especially when the battery is 
nearly discharged; it also will be more apparent with a stiff 
motor or with a loose or poor connection in the battery cir¬ 
cuit. It is on account of this heavy discharge current that the 
cranking should not be continued any longer than is necessary, 



although a fully charged battery will crank the engine for 
several minutes. 

During the cranking operation the ammeter will show a 
discharge. This is the current that is used both in the shunt 
field winding and the ignition current; the ignition current, 
being an intermittent current of comparatively low frequency, 
will cause the ammeter to vibrate during the cranking opera- 















































THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 


171 


tion. If the lights are on the meter will show a heavier dis¬ 
charge. 

The main cranking current is not conducted through the 
ammeter, as this is a very heavy current and it would be im¬ 
possible to conduct this heavy current through the ammeter 
and still have an ammeter that is sensitive enough to indicate 
accurately the charging current and the current for lights and 
ignition. 

As soon as the engine tires the starting pedal should be 
released immediately, as the overrunning motor clutch is 
operating from the time the engine fires until the starting gears 
are out of mesh. Since they operate at a very high speed, if 
they are held in mesh for any length of time, there is enough 
friction in this clutch to cause it to heat and burn out the 
lubricant. There is no necessity for holding the gears in 
mesh. 

The motor clutch operates between the flywheel and the 
armature pinion for the purpose of getting a suitable gear 
reduction between the motor generator and the flywheel. It 
also prevents the armature from being driven at an ex¬ 
cessively high speed during the short time the gears are 
meshed after the engine is running on its own power. 

This clutch is lubricated by the grease cup A, shown in 
Fig. 93. This forces grease through the hollow shaft to the 
inside of the clutch. This cup should be given a turn or two 
every week. 

When the cranking operation is finished the top brush is 
raised off the commutator when the starting pedal is released. 
This throws the starting motor out of action (Fig. 94). 
The top brush comes in contact with the generator commu¬ 
tator, and the armature is driven by the extension of the 
pump shaft. 

At speeds above approximately 7 miles per hour the gen¬ 
erator voltage is higher than the voltage of the storage bat¬ 
tery which causes current to flow from the generator winding 
through the ammeter in the charge direction to the storage 
battery. As the speed increases up to approximately 20 miles 


172 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


per hour this charging current increases, but at the higher 
speeds the charging current decreases. 

Lubrication.—There are five places to lubricate the Delco 
System: 

1. The grease clutch for lubricating the motor clutch. 

2. Hole at B (Fig. 93) for supplying cup grease for J| 

lubricating the generator clutch and forward arma- ^ 
ture bearing. 

3. The oiler C in the rear end cover for lubricating the 

bearing on the armature shaft. This should receive 
a few drops of oil once a week. 

4. The oil hole in the distributor at A (Fig. 93) for 

lubricating the top bearing of the distributor shaft. 
This should receive oil once a week 

5. This is the inside of the distributor head. This should 

be lubricated with a small amount of vaseline, care¬ 
fully applied two or three times during the first 2000 
miles running of the car, after which it will require 
no attention. This is to secure a burnished track for 
the rotor brush on the distributor head. This grease 
should be sparingly applied and the head wiped clean 
from dust and dirt. 

The combination switch (Figs. 95. and 96) is for the pur¬ 
pose of controlling the lights, ignition, and the circuit between 
the generator and the storage battery. The button next to 
the ammeter controls both the ignition and the circuit between 
the generator and the storage battery, the latter circuit being * 
shown in the heavier line as shown on the circuit diagram 
(Fig. 98). The button next to this controls the head lights. 
The next button controls the auxiliary lamps in the head 
lights. The button on the left controls the cowl and tail 
lights. 

The circuit breaker is mounted on the combination switch as 
shown in Fig. 96. This is a protective device, which takes 
the place of a fuse block - and fuses. It prevents the dis- 


THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 


173 


charging of the battery or damage to the switch or wiring to 
the- lamps, in the event of any of the wires leading to these 
becoming grounded. As long as the lamps are using the nor¬ 
mal amount of current the circuit breaker is not affected. 



But in the event of any of the wires becoming grounded an 
abnormally heavy current is conducted through the circuit 
breaker, thus producing a strong magnetism which attracts 
the pole piece and opens the contacts. This cuts off the flow 



Fig. 96. Delco Ignition Switch Circuit Breaker—Mounted 


of current which allows the contacts to close again and the 
operation is repeated, causing the circuit breaker to pass an 
intermittent current and give forth a vibrating sound. 

It requires 25 amperes to start the circuit breaker vibrating, 








































































174 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


but once vibrating a current of three to five amperes will 
cause it to continue to operate. 

In case the circuit breaker vibrates repeatedly, do not at¬ 
tempt to increase the tension of the spring, as the vibration 
is an indication of a ground in the system. Remove the 
ground and the vibration will stop. 

The ammeter on the right side of the combination switch is 
to indicate the current that is going to or coming from the 
storage battery with the exception of the cranking current. 
When the engine is not running and current is being used for 
lights, the ammeter shows the amount of current being used 
and the ammeter hand points to the discharge side, as the 
current is being discharged from the battery. 

When the engine is running above generating speeds and no 
current is being used for lights or horn, the ammeter will 
show charge. This is the amount of current that is being 
charged into the battery. If current is being used for lights, 
ignition and horn, in excess of the amount that is being gen¬ 
erated, the ammeter will show a discharge as the excess current 
must be discharged from the battery, but at all ordinary 
speeds the ammeter will read charge. 

The ignition coil is mounted on top of the motor generator 
as shown in Fig. 94 and is what is generally known as the 
ignition transformer coil. In addition to being a plain trans¬ 
former coil it has incorporated in it a condenser (which is 
necessary for all high tension ignition systems) and has in¬ 
cluded on the front end an ignition resistance unit. 

The coil proper consists of a round core of a number of 
small iron wires. Wound around this and insulated from it is 
the primary winding. The circuit and arrangement of the dif¬ 
ferent parts are shown in Fig. 97. The primary current is 
supplied through the combination switch through the primary 
winding and resistance through the coil, to the distributor con¬ 
tacts. This is very plainly shown in Fig. 98. It is the in¬ 
terrupting of this primary current by the timer contacts to¬ 
gether with the action of the condenser which causes a rapid 
demagnetization of the iron core of the coil that induces the 


THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 


175 


high tension current in the secondary winding. This secondary 
winding consists of several thousand turns of very fine copper 
wire, the different layers of which are well insulated from 
each other and from the primary winding. One end of the 
secondary winding is grounded and the other end terminates 
at the high tension terminal about midway on top of the coil. 



It is from this terminal that the high tension current is con¬ 
ducted to the distributor where it is distributed to the proper 
cylinders by the rotor shown in Fig. 98. 

The distributor and timer, together with the ignition coil, 
spark plugs, and wiring, constitute the ignition system. 

The proper ignition of an internal combustion engine con¬ 
sists of igniting the mixture in each cylinder at such a time 
that it will be completely burned at the time the piston reaches 
dead center on the compression stroke. A definite period of 
time is required from the time the spark occurs at the spark 
plug until the mixture is completely expanded. It is there¬ 
fore apparent, that, as the speed of the engine increases, the 
time the spark occurs must be advanced with respect to the 
crank shaft, and it is for this reason that the Delco ignition 
systems are fitted with an automatic spark control. 

The quality of the mixture and the amount of compression 













































CIRCUIT BREAKER 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 



Fig. 98. Delco Wiring Diagram—Buick Cars 


















































THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 


177 


are also factors in the time required for the burning to be 
complete. Thus a rich mixture burns quicker than a lean 
one. For this reason the engine will stand more advance with 
a half open throttle than with a wide open throttle, and in 
order to secure the proper timing of the ignition due to these 
variations and to retard the spark for starting, idling and car¬ 
buretor adjusting, the Delco distributor also has a manual 
control. 

The automatic feature of this distributor is shown in Figs. 



09 and 100. With the spark lever set at the running po¬ 
sition on the steering wheel (which is nearly all the way down 
on the quadrant), the automatic feature gives the proper spark 
for all speeds excepting a wide open throttle at low speeds, 
at which time the spark lever should be slightly retarded. 
.When the ignition is too far advanced it causes loss of power 
and a knocking sound within the engine. With too late a 
spark there is a loss of power which is usually not noticed 
except by an experienced driver or one very familiar with 
the car and heating of the engine and excessive consumption 
of fuel is the result. 






















































178 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


The timer contacts shown at D and C (Fig. 99) are two 
of the most important points of an automobile. Very little 
attention will keep these in perfect condition. These are 
tungsten metal, which is extremely hard and requires a very 
high temperature to melt. Under normal conditions they wear 
or bum very slightly and will very seldom require attention; 
but in the event of abnormal voltage, such as would be ob¬ 
tained by running with the battery removed, or with the 
ignition resistance unit shorted out, or w T ith a defective con¬ 
denser, these contacts bum very rapidly and in a short time 



Fig. 100. Delco Ignition Contact Breaker and Timer 


will cause serious ignition trouble. The car should never he 
operated with the battery removed. 

It is a very easy matter to check the resistance unit by ob¬ 
serving its heating when the ignition button is out and the 
contacts in the distributor are closed. If it is shorted out it 
will not heat up, and will cause missing at low speeds. 

A defective condenser such as will cause contact trouble 
will cause serious missing of the ignition. Therefore, any of 
these troubles are comparatively easy to locate and should be 
immediately remedied. 

These contacts should be so adjusted that when the fiber 
block B is on top of one of the lobes of the cam, the contacts 
are opened the thickness of the gauge on the distributor 
wrench. Adjust contacts by turning contact screw C, and 





THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 


179 


lock nut N. The contacts should be dressed with fine emery 
cloth so that they meet squarely across the entire face. 

The rotor distributes the high tension current from the 
center of the distributor to the proper cylinder. Care must be 
taken to see that the distributor head is properly located, 
otherwise the rotor brush will not be in contact with the ter¬ 
minal at the time the spark occurs. 

The distributor head and rotor should be lubricated as de¬ 
scribed under the heading “Lubrication.” The amount of 
ignition current required for different speeds is described 
under the heading “Motoring the Generator.” 


CHAPTER XXVI 


STORAGE BATTERY 
Construction, Operation and Care 

The modern storage battery does not produce or generate 
electrical force. It was designed to carry an extra supply of 
current in storage to operate lighting and starting systems, 
and in most cases the current required for ignition is drawn 
from this supply. 

T erjninal 

Cell Retainer Case 
Cell Jar 

Negative Plate 
Separator 
Positive Plate 


Fig. 101. Storage Battery, Sectional View 

A storage battery is also called an accumulator, as it accu¬ 
mulates and retains a charge of electrical current for future 
use. 

Fig. 101 illustrates a storage battery with a section of the 

180 



l 
























STORAGE BATTERY 


181 


cell retainer case removed to show the location of the cells, 
their respective order, terminal posts and connections. A sec¬ 
tion of the cell jar, has also been removed to show the core, 
which consists of a set of positive and negative plates. The 
positive plates are inserted between the negative plates and 
are held in this position through their respective connections 
to the positive and negative terminal posts. The cell re¬ 
tainer-jars are made of zinc or rubber, and contain an acid 
and water solution called electrolyte into which the core is 
entirely immersed. 

The Positive and Negative Plates. —The plates are held 
from direct contact with each other by a wood or rubber sepa¬ 
rator. These plates are formed with small sectional compart¬ 
ments called grids, into which a lead compound in paste form 
is pressed. The positive plates are made of lead oxide (zinc), 
and are dark gray in color, while the negative plates are 
made of pure lead, and are light gray in color. 

Cells.— The cells are connected up in series, that is, the posi¬ 
tive terminal post of one cell is connected to the negative ter¬ 
minal post of the next cell, forming a direct path through the 
cell arrangement. Each cell will retain a two-volt pressure 
until fully discharged. The voltage of a battery is determined 
by adding the number of two-volt cells that it contains. 

Amperage. —The standard type of storage battery shown in 
Fig. 102 is composed of three two-volt cells which form a six- 
volt unit of sixty ampere hours, which means that a fully 
charged battery will deliver one ampere per hour for sixty 
hours. This, also, is about the rate of amperage consumed by 
the modern battery ignition system. 

Electrolyte Solution.— The electrolyte solution is composed 
of a mixture of one part of sulphuric acid added to four to 
six parts of water. This solution is poured into the cell 
through the filler cap, until the plates are covered from one- 
fourth to one-half inch in depth as shown in Fig. 102. 

Care should always be exercised to keep the air vent in the 
filler cap free from grease and dirt in order that the gases 
formed through evaporation may escape. 


182 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER'S GUIDE 


Battery Charging. —The cells are charged by passing a di¬ 
rect current through them, which causes a chemical action to 
take place as the current flows in, changing the nature of the 
positive and negative plates, thereby retaining a current force 
equal to the difference of the changed nature of the plates. 



Fig. 102. 'Storage Battery, S'ectional View 


The battery is entirely discharged when the plates become 
alike in nature. 

Storage Battery *Care and Maintenance.— Regularly once 
every week during the summer, and every two weeks during 
the winter, add water to each of the three cells of the battery, 
until the tops of the plates are covered. Use water only; 
never add acid of any kind. Water for battery purposes 
should be distilled fresh rain or melted ice, and must be free 
from alkali, iron, or other impurities. The battery should be 
kept clean and free from dirt. Use only clean non-metallic 
vessels for handling and storing water for battery purposes. 

The state of charge of a battery is indicated by the specific 













































STORAGE BATTERY 


183 


gravity or density of the solution. Fig. 103 shows a hydrom¬ 
eter syringe used for taking specific gravity readings. The 
filler or vent plug in the top of the cell is removed and the 
rubber tube of the hydrometer syringe inserted into the cell 
so that the end of the tube is below T the solution. Then 
squeeze the rubber bulb slowly, drawing the solution into the 
acid chamber until the hydrometer floats. 



Fig. 103. Hydrometer Syringe 


The reading on the graduator stem at the point where it 
emerges from the solution is the specific gravity or density of 
the solution. 

Fig. 103 shows an enlarged section of the hydrometer float¬ 
ing so that the reading of the graduated scale is 1.280 at the 
point where it emerges from the solution. This is the specific 
gravity or density of the solution. 







































184 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


After testing, the solution must be returned to the cell from 
which it was taken. 

Never take specific gravity readings immediately after 
adding water to the cells. 

The specific gravity readings are expressed in “points,” 
thus the difference between 1.275 and 1.300 is 25 points. 

When all the cells are in good condition the specific gravity 
will be approximately the same in all cells and the difference 
should not be greater than 25 to 30 points. 

With a fully charged battery the specific gravity of the solu¬ 
tion will be from 1.280 to 1.300. 

Specific gravity readings above 1.200 indicates that the bat¬ 
tery is more than half charged. 

Specific gravity readings below 1.200, but above 1.150 in¬ 
dicates battery less than half charged. 

Gravity below 1.150 inidcates battery discharged or run 
down. 

Should the gravity fall below 1.150 the gas motor should 
be given a long run with all lights turned off, to restore the 
battery. 

This condition may result from leaving a car standing for 
prolonged periods with all lights in use and insufficient run¬ 
ning of the gas motor in between these periods to replace the 
current taken to supply the lights. 

When the specific gravity shows the battery to be half dis¬ 
charged, the lights should be used sparingly until the gravity 
rises to approximately 1.275. 

If the specific gravity in one cell is much lower than that 
of the others, and if successive readings show the difference 
to be increasing, this indicates that the cell is not in good 
order. 

If one cell regularly requires more water than the others 
(continually lowering the specific gravity), a leaky jar is in¬ 
dicated. Leaky jars should be replaced immediately. 

If there is no leak and the specific gravity falls 50 to 75 
points below that of the other cells in the battery, an internal 
short circuit is indicated and should be remedied. 


STORAGE BATTERY 


185 


Battery to Remain Idle. —Where a battery is to remain out 
of active service for a long period, it may be kept in good 
condition by giving it a freshening charge at least once a 
month, by running the gas motor idle. 

When a battery has been out of service for some time it 
should be given a thorough charge before it is placed in 
service again. 

If the gas motor cannot be run to give a freshening charge, 
the battery should be taken from the car and placed at a 
garage, which makes a business of charging storage batteries. 
It can be charged at least once a month. This charge should 
be 4 and % to 5 amperes for twenty-four hours. 

Battery Freezing. —In order to avoid freezing, a battery 
should be kept in a fully charged condition, as a fully charged 
battery will not freeze except at extreme temperatures. As a 
battery discharges the specific gravity of the solution de¬ 
creases, and the specific gravity of a fully discharged battery 
will be approximately 1.120. Batteries of this low gravity 
will freeze at 20° F. above zero, whereas, the density of the 
solution in a battery approximately three-quarters charged will 
be 1.260, and a solution of this density will not freeze until 
60° F. below zero. 

See Accumulator. Chapter 14, Electrical Dictionary—Func¬ 
tion and Chemical Action. 


CHAPTER XXVII 


SPARK PLUGS AND CARE 

Some definite knowledge of spark plug construction qual¬ 
ity, and care, will be found very useful to the average motor¬ 
ist in purchasing new plugs, and keeping those in present use, 
in good condition. A good plug properly constructed should 
outlast the life of the motor. When purchasing new pings, 
first examine the old plug and get one of the same length. 
This is very important as spark plugs are made in as many 
different lengths as required by high and low compression 
motors. High compression motors have a small low walled 
combustion chamber, while low compression motors usually 
have a spacious high wall chamber and require a longer plug, 
whereas if the long plug is used in the high compression 
motor it may be put out of commission by the ascending 
piston. Next determine the size of the plug and the gauge of 
the thread. The majority of motors use the % inch plug, 
with the S. A. E. thread, while a few still use the A. L. A. M. 
thread which is much finer gauged. Another point to be re¬ 
membered is that it is an unwise expenditure to purchase 
cheap plugs because the intense heat and pressure that they 
are subjected to and required to stand, demands that they be 
made of the highest quality of material and workmanship. 

Fig. 104 shows the sectional construction of a spark plug 
costing from one dollar to one dollar and fifty cents. No. 1, 
the terminal, is designed to fit all connections. No. 2 nut 
which holds electroids firmly in place. No. 3 represents 
round edged shoulders which prevent the plug from short 
circuiting on the outside. No. 4 is a heavy electroid which 
will not break or burn. No. 5 is an extra heavy insulator 
which insures a good spark in case the outer porcelain in- 

18G 


SPARK-PLUGS AND CARE 


187 


sulator becomes broken or cracked. No. 6 is a bushing which 
holds the insulator firmly in place from the top. No. 7 is a 
high compression washer which allows for upward expansion 
and makes an even seat for the bushing which holds the in¬ 
sulator in position. No. 8 is a massive porcelain insulator 
designed to withstand a high temperature without cracking. 
No. 9 is a copper asbestos washer that allows for the down¬ 
ward expansion of the insulator. No. 10 is the shell casting 



which holds and protects the insulator. No. 11 are rounded 
corners which will allow the plug to be screwed down flush 
without coming into contact with the curved walls of the cup 
containers. No. 12 is a high compression washer which pre¬ 
vents all leakage. No. 13 shows elastic cement which 
strengthens the low r er construction of the insulator and pre¬ 
vents the compression from escaping through the center of the 
insulator. No. 14 is a hardened polished steel tipped elec- 
troid. No. 15 is a bent polished steel electroid dipped on 
each side of the spark in order to prevent oil from running 
down from the shell casting and closing the spark gap. No. 
























188 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


16 represents an extended center electroid which prevents any 
oil that may have lodged on it from stopping at the spark gap. 

Spark Plug Cleaning.—To insure a smooth running motor 
and a good spark, the spark plugs should be cleaned at thirty 
day intervals. It is not always necessary to disassemble them 
at this time as the carbon usually collects and bakes on the 
metal casting shell and can be removed by running a thin 
knife blade or finger nail file around the inner surface. How¬ 
ever, when the insulator becomes pitted or carbon burnt the 
plug should be disassembled and the insulator wiped clean 
with a cloth dampened in kerosene. Never immerse the in¬ 
sulator in kerosene, as this will loosen the cement around the 
center electroid and cause the plug to leak compression. The 
shell may be immersed. It is then wiped dry and the inside 
surfaces scraped or rubbed with a piece of sand or emery 
paper to dislodge the carbon pits. After all parts have been 
thoroughly dried the plug is reassembled, using new washers. 


CHAPTER XXVIII 


CLUTCH CONSTRUCTION, TYPE AND CARE 

The clutch used in automobile construction of the present 
day becomes a necessary part of the equipment upon the 
adoption by manufacturers of the progressive and selective 
types of sliding gear transmissions. 

When the engine is started the clutch is “in,” that is, in con¬ 
tact with the flywheel, and all parts of the clutch revolve with 
it at the same speed. The shaft on which the clutch is 
mounted extends into the transmission gear case, but as the 
transmission gears are in a neutral position, the movement 
of the car is not affected. 

When the car is to be started the clutch foot pedal (usually 
on the left side of the steering column) is pressed down. 
This throws the part attached to the drive shaft out of contact 
with the part attached to the flywheel, and in its backward 
movement it comes into contact with the clutch brake, as 
shown in Fig. 105, which stops it from revolving. The hand 
gear control lever is shifted into the first speed slot or position. 
The pressure on the foot pedal is then gradually released 
and the clutch is carried in by spring tension, and the car 
moves off at first speed. 

Second Speed.—The clutch is thrown “out” after a brief 
lapse of three to five seconds has been allowed for the 
brake to slow up rotation in order that the gears to be meshed 
will be rotating at the same speed. The hand control lever is 
now shifted into the second speed slot, and the clutch pedals 
released. 

High Speed or Direct Drive.—The clutch is thrown out and 
a few seconds allowed for it to slow up. The hand control 
lever is shifted into the high speed slot, which connects the 

189 


190 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


drive or propeller shaft directly to the clutch shaft and the 
car is driven at crank shaft speed when the clutch is let in. 
Reverse.— The clutch is employed in the same manner. 



Fig. 105. Cone Clutch and Brake 


However, the motion of the car, the clutch and all gears must 
be at a stand still before the gear control lever is shifted to 
the reverse speed slot, as the gears in the transmission operate 
in the opposite direction. 

OPERATION 

A clutch always consists of two parts, one part which is 
attached to the flywheel, and another part which operates on 
or against the part formed by the flywheel. 

While there are five to seven different types of clutches, but 
two types are used by the majority of automobile manufac¬ 
turers. The single or multiple disc clutch is used almost ex- 






























































CLUTCH CONSTRUCTION, TYPE AND CARE 191 


clusively in unit power plant construction, while the cone 
type is used when the transmission is carried in a separate 
unit. 

Fig. 105 shows the cone clutch with its three adjusting 
springs and clutch brake. The cone is shown in a lighter color 
than the flywheel. It has a funnel-shaped surface with a slant 
or angle of from thirty to thirty-eight degrees. The slanted 
surface is faced with leather and fits into the rim of the fly¬ 
wheel which has been ground to the same slant. The cone 
clutch is not attached to the flywheel but forms a part and 
revolves with it when the faces are in contact. The cone is 
carried on a separate short shaft which extends into the trans¬ 
mission case. This shaft carries a steel plate or disc at the 
front end to which the cone which slides on the shaft is an¬ 
chored by studs extending from the plate through the cone. 
The studs usually number three or four and carry a two to 
three inch spring on the outer end back of the cone. The 
cone is backed out of contact with the flywheel face, against 
the tension of these springs, in a toggle leverage connected to 
the foot pedal. The clutch brake shown in Fig. 105 is ad¬ 
justable and makes contact with the rim of the cone retarding 
the rotation when the cone is drawn out of contact with the 
flywheel. 

Cone Clutch Care. —The leather face of the cone should 
receive 5 to 7 drops of Neat’s foot oil every thirty days. A 
grease cup will be found on the cone which provides lubri¬ 
cation for the shaft on which the cone slides. This should be 
given a half turn every second day. 

Cone Clutch Adjustment.— The three studs extending 
through the cone, have a lock nut adjustment on the outer 
end, and the cone may be adjusted up to make a stronger face 
contact by loosening the lock nut and turning the inner nut 
to the right. This strengthens the spring tension and causes 
the contact faces to set more firmly. This adjustment, how¬ 
ever, should take place only when clutch slipping is noted. 
Only a little movement of the nuts is necessary, and all three 
or four nuts should be taken up a like amount in order to 


192 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


prevent the cone from running out of line or making uneven 
contact. 

Fig. 106 shows the multiple disc clutch used almost ex¬ 
clusively in connection with the unit power plant. This type 
of clutch consists of a set of plates attached and driven by 



Fig. 10§. Multi-Disc Unit Power Plant, Clutch and Transmission 

the flywheel, and another set of plates or thin discs attached 
to the drive shaft. The drive shaft plates operate between the 
flywheel plates. The contact is frictional and the plates are 
held together by spring tension. 

BORG AND BECK CLUTCH 

The new Borg and Beck Clutch is provided with a thrust 
bearing at the inner end of the clutch sleeve, which does 
away with the friction between the parts, and eliminates the 
need of a clutch brake. 































































































CLUTCH CONSTRUCTION, TYPE AND CARE 193 


The clutch is mounted in the customary way in a housing 
which contains both the flywheel and the clutch. 

Referring to the sectional view, Fig. 107, the action of the 
clutch is clear if it is kept in mind that among the rotatable 
parts only the driven group, comprising of the disk A and 



Fig. 107. Borg and Beck Clutch 


\ 

the shaft B, can stand still when the flywheel is running. All 
the other rotatable parts are anchored to the flywheel, and 
must revolve and drive with the latter. The clutch brake was 
formerly mounted at the inner end of the clutch shaft, and 
has been replaced by the thrust bearing shown at C. 














































































































































194 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


When the clutch is disengaged there is no friction between 
the shaft B, and the throw out sleeve D. The thrust bearing 
takes the rotating drag of the clutch shaft, thereby eliminating 
the necessity for a brake to check the spinning action. The 
friction and power action is readily understood as, when the 
clutch is thrown in, all the rotating parts are friction locked 
into a single combination and revolve as one with the flywheel. 

The power of the release clutch spring E, acting through 
the throwout-collar F, and the bell crank pivot G, drives 
the thrust shoes outwmrdly with a lever wedge toggle com¬ 
bination of powers against the overhanging, inward beveled 
face to the thrust ring H, since the parts on which they are 
mounted are backed against the cover w T all or rigid end of the 
clutch casing. It therefore follows that the full part shaft¬ 
ing effect of the thrust is communicated to the thrust ring H, 
and the latter, in being driven hard toward the flywheel, sets 
up between itself and the inner casing wall a friction grip 
sufficiently powerful to stop the slippage of the asbestos rings 
upon the polished faces of the discs, thus giving the drive to 
the car. 

When the pedal is depressed to release the clutch, the re¬ 
tracing parts telescope the coil of the spring E, until it 
occupies nearly a single plane. The withdrawing parts also 
release the clutch shoes a sufficient distance from the face of 
the thrust ring H to permit the latter, together with its com¬ 
panion friction ring, to back away from the disc, thus break¬ 
ing the friction grip and permitting it to come to a stop, 
while the flywheel and the parts of the clutch anchored to it 
are left free to revolve idly. 

The release disc A is so light that its spinning does not con¬ 
tinue except for a very short time and does not offer any 
clashing action on the gears. The full thrust of the spring 
transmitted through the powerful lever toggle action to the 
friction grip parts is always sufficient to lock the driving fly¬ 
wheel parts, and the driven disc, into a fixed nonslipping re¬ 
lation for a full driving action; but it is still always within 
control of the driver, through the foot lever, to let the clutch 


CLUTCH CONSTRUCTION, TYPE AND CARE 195 


into engagement by degrees, and thus by a gradual increase of 
the friction grip, gradually overcome the starting slippage. 

Adjustments.—Taking up adjustments are provided by 
means of bolts acting through adjustment slots in the cover. 
When the bolts are loosened and shifted in their cover slots, 
they control and shift with them an adjustment ring which 
brings all the shoes to new seats against the nonslipping 
thrust ring and these seats being farther up the inclines of the 
tapered ring, the ring is necessarily thrust much farther to¬ 
ward the other friction parts, thus compensating the wear. 

The adjustment for throw-out can be controlled by taking 
up the friction grip adjustment, the latter being identical with 
the take up adjustment just described, as these too are taken 
care of by the same mechanical means to make the adjust¬ 
ment on the clutch. 

Disc Clutch Cleaning; Dry Plate.—Dry plate clutches do 
not require any oil, except that the grease cups (which pro¬ 
vide lubrication for the sleeve shaft and bearings) be filled 
weekly and given a half turn every second day. The housing 
and plates should be cleaned whenever slipping becomes 
noticeable. To do this remove the cover from the housing, 
and the drain plug from the bottom, hold the clutch out, and 
squirt kerosene over the plates with a dope gun. This will re¬ 
move the grease from the plates, and also any dirt or grit that 
may have lodged in the bottom of the housing. 

Disc Clutch Cleaning; Wet Plate.—The wet plate clutch is 
cleaned in the same manner as the dry plate, except that the 
plug is first removed from the bottom of the housing and the 
oil drained off before using the kerosene. After the plates 
and housing have been cleaned, replace the drain plug and 
fill the housing up to the clutch shaft with a heavy cylinder oil. 

CONE CLUTCH CLEANING 

Cone clutches are always in perfect condition when leav¬ 
ing the factory and should not require any further attention 
during the first season or for eight to ten thousand miles of 


service. 


196 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


After that it is usually necessary to replace the leather, or 
reline the cone, which makes it as good and as serviceable as 
when it was new. 

New Clutch Leathers.—New clutch leathers may be ob¬ 
tained from the manufacturer, or from the service station, by 
giving the number and model of the car. New clutch leathers 
obtained in this way are cut, shaped, and have the ends ce¬ 
mented, and are ready to be slipped on or oft, over the cone 



Fig. 108. Cone Clutch Leathers—Pattern—Cutting 


and riveted into place. However, the leather must first be 
soaked in water or Neat’s foot oil to make it soft and pliable. 
This allows it to be driven or stretched over the cone. The 
rivets must be counter-sunk to prevent the heads from extend¬ 
ing above the top surface of the leather, which would cause the 
clutch to ‘‘grab” or jerk upon being engaged. 

Measuring and Cutting Clutch Leathers.—Whenever pos¬ 
sible it is advisable to purchase clutch leathers cut and ce¬ 
mented, ready to put on. But in case of emergency or when 
the proper size cannot be obtained, a new leather may be cut 
from a piece of leather three-sixteenth of an inch in thick¬ 
ness using the old leather as a pattern. But in case the old 
leather is not available to serve as a pattern, proceed in the 
following manner which is illustrated in Fig. 108, which shows 
how to make an exact pattern out of paper without going 
into technicalities. Take a piece of heavy wrapping paper, 
forty or fifty inches long and twenty inches wide, lay the cone 
on the left hand edge about one inch from the bottom of the 
sheet, roll the cone keeping the paper flat on the face until 












CLUTCH CONSTRUCTION, TYPE AND CARE 197 


the starting edge meets the sheet, hold the wrapped cone and 
draw a line around the inside of the paper, letting the pencil 
rest against the edge of the large diameter of the cone; re¬ 
peat at the small end of the cone, then draw a line parallel 
to the starting edge where it meets the sheet. This will give 
you a pattern similar to that shown with the dotted lines in 
Fig. 108. 

Now secure a piece of unstretchable leather (belting is 
preferable). This belting or leather should be slightly longer 
than the pattern you have just completed and sufficiently 
wide to embrace the curve; about twelve to fifteen inches 
wide for the average clutch will be sufficient, and about three- 
sixteenths of an inch thick. 

Cut out the* paper pattern and lay it on the leather belting 
as shown in Fig. 10S, and cut out with a sharp knife, leaving 
one-half inch over at each end as a safety measure and for 
mitering the joints. Fit this leather to the cone and cut the 
ends the exact size, miter the ends and cement with a good 
leather cement. Be sure that you have the rough or flesh side 
of the new facing on the outside; rivet it firmly in place and 
smooth down the rough spots with a piece of coarse sand 
paper, clean off all dirt, grease, and grit, especially the grit 
from the sand paper, as this will grind and score the smooth 
surface of the flywheel and cause clutch slipping. Paint the 
leather with Neat’s foot oil and the clutch is ready to be as¬ 
sembled and adjusted. 

Cone Clutch Cleaning.—Cone clutches usually do not re¬ 
quire any special care or cleaning unless oil or grease, other 
than (Neats foot or castor) are applied accidentally or by mis¬ 
take to the leather face. If this happens the grease must be 
thoroughly cleaned off of the leather face with kerosene or 
gasoline otherwise the clutch will not hold. After the clutch 
leather has been washed allow it to dry for twenty minutes 
and apply a thin coat of Neats foot oil evenly on the leather 
face before reassembling the clutch. 


CHAPTER XXIX 


TRANSMISSIONS, TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 

Transmission came into use with the application or adoption 
of the internal combustion engine as a factor in motor car 
propulsion. 

As this type of engine develops its power by a rapid suc¬ 
cession of explosions in the combustion chambers, each ex¬ 
plosion delivers an impulse or power stroke to the piston, 
which in turn sets the crank shaft and flywheel to revolving. 
The momentum gathered by the crank shaft and flywheel may 
therefore be termed the power for duty, or -in other words, 
unless there is momentum or carrying motion at this point, 
there will be little or no power for duty. 

This brings us up to a point where it is easy to see that a 
rapid series of explosions are necessary to gain carrying mo¬ 
mentum or power to move a dead weight load. As this mo¬ 
tional power could not be applied to the load without serious 
damage to the gears and bearings, it was necessary to invent 
a device to gradually transmit or apply the power to the 
movable load by graduating the leverage. This resulted in 
the development of the automobile transmission. The natural 
way of doing this at first seemed to be by applying the power 
to the load by frictional slippage. Many ingenious devices 
of this sort were tried out without much success until the 
driving and driven disc type made its appearance. 

Fig. 109 shows the driving and driven disc type of friction 
transmission. This type of transmission is not being used 
by any of the present day manufacturers of automobiles, but 
may still be found on some of the three and four-year-old 
models still in operation. 

A, the drive shaft, is squared and slides backward a dis- 

198 


TRANSMISSIONS, TYPES 


199 


tance of three inches through a squared sleeve extending from 
the hub of the flywheel. The action of this shaft is con¬ 
trolled by a leverage arrangement to a foot pedal. B, the 
steel plate driving disc, is attached to the end of shaft A, and 
drives C, when held back against it by pressure on the foot 
pedal. Disc C can be slid in any position on the jack or 
cross shaft D, and is controlled by a leverage arrangement 


D C B A 



connected to a hand lever. The various speeds are obtained 
by sliding disc C into different positions and contacts on the 
left side of disc B. Reverse speeds are obtained by sliding 
disc C over center where it forms contact on the right side of 
B and is driven in an opposite direction. 

The Planetary Type of Transmission.—The planetary type 
of transmission made its appearance along about the same time 
as the friction type. The power is transmitted to the load 
through a set of reduction gears arranged in a drum. A king 
gear on the engine shaft operates a set of small gears in the 
drum. These small gears reduce the leverage speed and trans¬ 
mit the power to the drive shaft, a band similar to that used 
on brakes is fitted to the face of the drum. When this drum 
containing the reduction gears is not in use it turns at crank 
shaft speed. The speed is used by pressing a foot pedal 
which tightens the brake band and holds the drum stationary, 
thereby forcing the smaller gears into action. 




































































200 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


Planetary transmissions are shown and fully explained in 
a later chapter. (See Model T Ford Supplement.) 

The Sliding Gear Transmission.—This type of transmission 
has proved very successful, and is used by 98 per cent of the 
present day automobile manufacturers. This type of trans¬ 
mission made its first appearance with a progressive gear 
shift, that is, it was necessary to proceed through one speed 
or set of gears to engage the next. This arrangement caused 
considerable confusion at times, as it was necessary to reshift 
the gears back through these speeds to attain neutral, when 
the car was brought to a stand still. 

The control lever operated on a straight forward and bark- 



Bal l-and-Socket 

Shift 


H or Gate Type 
Gear Shift 


Fig. 110. Selective Type of Gear Shifts 


ward direction on a quadrant, having a notch for each speed 
change. This gear shifting arrangement has also been aban¬ 
doned by manufacturers in favor of the selective gear shift 
which is arranged so that the driver may choose any speed at 
will. Fig. 110 shows the control lever which operates in a 
frame resembling the block letter H and the ball and socket 
shift which operates in the same manner. Fig. Ill shows the 
complete assembly of the selective sliding gear transmission. 
The sliding gears are arranged on a separate core and are 
operated by an individual throw fork, which seats in a groove 
on the shoulder of the gear. Low and reverse are always op¬ 
posite each other on the same core. High and intermediate 
are located on another core, and are controlled by another in- 







































































TRANSMISSIONS, TYPES 


201 


dividual shifting fork. The gear box arrangement (Fig. A) 
shows the cast gear box which contains the gears, shafts, and 
bearings, and a roomy compartment below the gears in which 
grease is carried, as the gears in this type of transmission al¬ 
ways operate in an oil bath which prevents excessive wear and 



Fig. 111. Sliding Gear Transmission—Sectional View 

causes them to operate noiselessly. Fig. B, the gear case 
cover, contains the slotted sliding shafts, to which the gear 
in 'shifting forks are attached. Fig. C shows the arrangement 
of the gears in the case and explains their operation. Gear 
No. 1 is attached to the extreme end of the engine shaft, and 
is continually engaged with gear No. 4, which causes the 













































































































202 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


counter shaft No. 11, containing the stationery gears, to re¬ 
volve whenever the engine shaft No. 9 is in operation. The 
drive shaft No. 8 does not run straight through and connect 
with No. 9, the engine shaft, but ends and takes its bearing 
in the core of gear No. 1. Consequently, when the gears on 
the drive shaft are slid into mesh with the gears on the counter 
shaft, variable speeds are attained. Low speed is obtained by 
sliding gear No. 3 into mesh with gear No. 6; second or inter¬ 
mediate is obtained by meshing gears No. 2 and gear No. 5. 

High, or engine speed, is obtained by sliding gear No. 2 
which is cored and shouldered over the end of gear No. 1, 
making a direct connection of the drive shaft No. 8, and the 
engine shaft No. 9, at this point. Reverse is obtained by mesh¬ 
ing gear No. 3 on the drive shaft with gear No. 10, which is 
an extra or idle gear mounted on a stub shaft on the rear of 
the gear case. Idle gear No. 10 is always in mesh with gear 
No. 7, on the counter shaft. 

Functional operation engine shafts always turn to the 
right or clockwise, which causes the counter shaft to turn to 
the left or anti- clockwise. This causes the drive shaft to turn 
to the right when low or intermediate speed gears are en¬ 
gaged, driving the car forward. Reverse, is obtained by the 
use of an extra gear in this way. Counter shaft turning to 
the left turns idle gear to the right, and this gear turning to 
the right, turns gear on the drive shaft to the left, and causes 
the car to be driven in a backward direction. In the unit 
power plant shown in Fig. 112, the operation and gear shift¬ 
ing are identical with that of the separate gear case. The 
crank case of the motor is either extended or another case at¬ 
tached to the motor which has a compartment arranged to 
contain the clutch and transmission gears. This arrange¬ 
ment results in compactness, and does away with the supports 
required to carry the transmission separately. 

Transmission Care.—The transmission should be thoroughly 
cleaned and refilled with fresh grease or heavy oil once in ev¬ 
ery thousand miles that the car is driven to prevent excessive 
wear and much noise. To clean, remove the plug at the bot- 


TRANSMISSIONS, TYPES 


203 


tom of the case, and the cover from the top. After the old 
oil has drained out, replace the plug, fill the case half full of 
kerosene, replace the cover, and let the motor run for a few 
minutes with the gears in neutral. Drain the kerosene off, 
and wash the case and gears off with a paint brush which has 
been dipped into fresh kerosene. Then examine the gears for 
blunt burrs and the bearings for looseness. If the gears are 
burred or chipped, file, or grind them down to level. If the 



Fig. 112. Clutch and Transmission Assembly—Unit Power Plant 

bearings are loose they will have to be replaced, as the bear¬ 
ings used to carry both the counter and drive shaft are seldom 
provided with means of adjusting. These bearings, however, 
will not show wear- for years if properly cared for. Next, 
see that the gear case is free from grit and filings, replace the 
drain plug, and fill the gear case to within one half inch from 
the drive or propeller shaft with a light graphite grease or 
heavy oil, and replace the cover using a new gasket. 








































































































































CHAPTER XXX 


UNIVERSAL JOINTS 

Universal joints were designed to transmit power from one 
shaft to another at constantly changing angles. An auto¬ 
mobile engine cannot be lmng at the low level required to allow 
straight line drive, as it would have to be carried from six to 
eight inches lower than it is in present construction, and this 
would allow very little road clearance if any. And as the 
rear axle receives the power transmitted to it at a constantly 
changing level due to torque and spring action, it is necessary 




204 

















































































































UNIVERSAL JOINTS 


205 


to have a flexible coupling on the propeller shaft between the 
engine and the rear axle to prevent the gears and bearings 
from being damaged from distortion. 

Universal joints are made of the best steel or bronze, do not 
require any adjusting, and will outlast the life of a car, pro¬ 
viding they are not driven at too great an angle, and are kept 
well lubricated. A metal shell or leather boot is fitted to the 



joint to carry and provide constant lubrication. This boot 
or container should be kept well-packed with a heavy oil, 
(G00-VV steam oil, Whitemore’s compound or a light graphite 
grease). 

Remove the oil plug every thirty days and pack the housing. 
Use a dope or oil gun to force in the lubricant. The housing 
should be subjected to regular inspections quite frequently as 
the lubricant often escapes from the end boot due to distortion 
and wear. 




























































































206 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


Fig. 113 shows the rigid construction of a heavy duty uni¬ 
versal joint and slip joint. The ends of the shafts are yoked 
and fitted to a swivel cross block; the leather boot follows the 
angle of the shaft and makes the housing oil tight. 

Fig. 114 shows a sectional view of the “Standard” universal 
joint, manufactured by the Universal Machine Co., of Bowling 
Green, Ohio. The left-hand cut shows the forward section 
and tapered shaft seat. This joint gives a combined uni¬ 
versal action and slip on a two inch square. All points are 
concentric and always in balance. The bearings are provided 
with grooves and holes for lubrication. A metal and leather 
boot is also provided for protection, and as a grease re¬ 
tainer. And owing to the flange type there are but four bolts 
to remove in order to disassemble this joint. 

The names of the various parts are given according to cor¬ 
responding numbers. 


3001— Flange 

3003—Adapter for same 

3002— Socket 

3006— Bronze caps 

3007— Trunion head 


3008—Metal boot 
3000—Leather boot 
3010-11-Boot clamps 

3004— Oil plug 

3005— Bolts 


I 


CHAPTER XXXI 


THE DIFFERENTIAL GEAR 


Differential gears were designed to allow for equalization 
of the power strain transmitted to the rear axles. 

The rotary movement is transmitted to the axles joining the 
wheels by a bevel gear, which if simple would drive both wheels 
at the same speed. This is satisfactory on the “straight 
ahead” drive, but it is clear that in turning a corner the car 
is describing a portion of a circle, and the inner wheel having 
a smaller circumference to traverse, must go at less speed than 
the outer. The differential gear was devised to allow for this 
difference in power stresses. 



W 


Fig. 115. Differential Action Diagram 


It is perhaps the functional action more than the simple 
mechanism that one finds the most confusion about. The dia¬ 
gram given in Fig. 115 shows how *the functional action is 
mechanically carried out. 

In the first place, each wheel, W, is fixed firmly to an in¬ 
dependent axle turned by pinions, D and E. These pinions 

207 























208 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


are connected by another, C. Now if D turns, E will rotate 
in the opposite direction due to the action of C. If D and E 
are rotating in the same direction at the same speed, C will 
merely lock with them and not rotate. If now, D accelerates 
slightly, C will turn, slowly retarding E, while if E accelerates, 
C will turn slowly in the opposite direction retarding D. 
This is precisely what is required in turning a corner. Now 
fix these in a box, driven as a whole by the bevel or ring 



Fig. 116. Differential Assembly 


gear B driven by the driving pinion gear A. When the car 
is on the straight ahead drive D, C, E are locked. C does not 
rotate and the three act as a single axle. As the car turns, 
C turns slowly, acted upon by the outer wheel, and gives the 
differential action. 

The Worm Gear Drive.—The worm gear drive differential 
action is practically the same as the bevel gear action, the 
only difference being that there is a worm gear on the end of 


































THE DIFFERENTIAL GEAR 


209 


the drive shaft which engages with a helical toothed gear, 
which takes the place of the bevel gear B. 

Fig. 116 shows the differential gear assembly which is car¬ 
ried by a set of bearings. These bearings are held in place 
by a set of shoulders, or retainers which are built into the 
housing on each side of the differential assembly. These 
bearings may be of either the radial, roller, or ball type. 
However, when the ball or roller bearing is used for carrying 
the differential, an end thrust bearing must be used in con¬ 
junction to take the end thrust and for adjusting purposes. 



The differential assembly shown is known as the bevel gear 
and pinion drive. The pinion gear is keyed to the tapered 
end of the drive shaft and usually does not carry an adjust¬ 
ment. The bevel gear mesh adjustment is made by setting 
the bearing supporting the differential assembly backward or 
forward. This adjustment, however, applies mostly to the 
full floating axle, as the axle shaft in this case usually has a 
square end which slides into the small bevel gear of the differ¬ 
ential. The shaft used in this type of axle may be drawn out 
through the wheel and replaced without disassembling the 
axle or removing the weight from the wheels. 

When the Hotchkiss drive is employed in combination with 
the semi-floating or three-quarters floating axle, three ad- 




















































210 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


justing points will be found. Fig. 117 shows the three points 
at which adjustments are made. The short drive shaft car¬ 
ries the pinion gear at the rear end, and a universal joint at 
the front end is supported by a set of radial bearings inside 
of the front and rear ends of the housing. 

The adjustment on this shaft is made by turning the notched 
cone A1 to the right, which pushes the bearings farther upon 
the bearing cones and reduces the looseness. After the short 
shaft has been properly adjusted, remove the lugs B, which 
fit into the notches of the adjustment nuts, A2 and A3, and 



Fig. 118. Allen Gearless Differential 


* 

turn A2 to the left to loosen, now turn A3 to the right until 
the bevel gear is meshing properly with pinion gear, then re¬ 
place the lugs, B, to hold the adjustment. It is only necessary 
to make this adjustment when play occurs from natural wear, 
which will happen probably once in every five to seven thou¬ 
sand miles. 

Fig. 118 shows a cross-section of the Allen gearless differ¬ 
ential. The main gearing is bolted to the casing. The wheel 
shafts are splined to ratchet rings. The two lugs of the pawl 
block are secured in slots in the casing so that the block turns 
with it. Eight pawls on the pawl block drive, the ratchet rings 
two on each side operate for forward, and two on each side 
for reverse. The pawls permit either ratchet ring to over- 


































THE DIFFERENTIAL GEAR 


211 


run them and move freely in the direction of motion, so long 
as it is moving faster than the pawl block. The lugs of the 
pawl block have a little motion, about 3-16", in the slots, so 
that the casing moves this distance before engaging them for 
forward or reverse motion. This operates the rocking cams 
by their heads inserted in slots in right angles to the lugs, 
having the effect of pressing on and disengaging the forward 
or reverse pawls according to the direction of the motion. 

When the car is running by its momentum with the clutch 
out, the action is reversed and the ratchet rings drive the 
easing and driving gear through the pawl block. 

The adjustment given above also applies to the setting of the 
Allen differential. 

Lubrication.— See Chapter on Axles. 


CHAPTER XXXII 


AXLE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 

Two types of rear axles are being used by the manufac¬ 
turers of automobiles—the live axle, and the dead axle. The 
live axle which carries the weight of the load and transmits 
the power of rotation to the wheels, is built in two dis¬ 
tinct designs called the semi-floating axle, and the full¬ 
floating axle. The semi-floating design is used extensively in 
manufacturing cars of light weight, while the full-floating 
design is favored more by the manufacturers of cars of me¬ 
dium and heavy weight. Both designs give equally satisfac¬ 
tory results. 

The dead axle carries the weight of the ear and load in 
much the same manner as a horse drawn vehicle. The power 
is conveyed to the loose wheels on the axle, by means of a 
chain which operates on a sprocket attached to the hub of the 
wheel, or by an internal gear drive arranged and housed in the 
brake drums. 

The Semi-floating Axle.—In the semi-floating design of 
axle, the axle shaft carries the weight and transmits the rota¬ 
tion power to the wheel, which is keyed and locked to the 
outer end. The axle shaft is provided with a bearing at each 
end which operates on the inside of a closely fitted housing. 
The inside end of each axle shaft is bolted directly to the dif¬ 
ferential. The housing is split or divided into two halves, and 
bolts together in the center over the differential. This design 
of axle gives excellent service, but has one disadvantage in 
that it is somewhat difficult to disassemble, as the rear system 
must be disconnected from the car to take the housing apart. 
Fig. 119 shows a part sectional view of a semi-floating axle 
used by the Detroit Taxicab Co. The wide series of S. K. F. 

212 


AXLE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 


213 


ball bearings used on this axle are self aligning, which prevents 
any binding action from shaft deflection. 

The Full-floating Axle.—The full-floating design of axle 
serves the same functional purpose as the semi-floating design, 
but is constructed differently and operates on a widely differ¬ 
ent plan. In the full-floating design of axle, the axle shaft 
does not support any of the weight of the car or load, but 
serves simply as a member to transmit the power rotation to 
the wheels. The wheels are mounted on separate bearings, 
which operate on the outside of the outer end of the housing. 
The inner ends of the axle shafts are squared, or splined and 
slide into slots or seats in the differential gears. The differ¬ 



ential assembly is in a separate unit, and is floated on bear¬ 
ings held by retainers extending from the forward end of the 
large ball-shaped center of the housing. The outer end of the 
axle shaft extends through the hub of the wheel, and has 
an umbrella-shaped plate on the end which bolts to the outside 
face of the wheel, as shown in Fig. 120, thus transmitting the 
power directly to the outside of the wheel, without the axle 
shaft taking any bearing. The axle shaft may be drawn out 
through the wheel, by removing the nuts which secure the um¬ 
brella plate, without removing the weight of the car from the 
wheels. The differential unit can also be removed without dis¬ 
assembling the housing, by removing a large cover plate from 
the center of the housing. Fig. 121 shows a typical full¬ 
floating axle, with a spiral bevel gear drive. The wheels in 
this case are mounted on a set of double series radial and 




































































214 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


thrust ball-bearings. The Hotchkiss type of short shaft final 
drive is carried in the forward extended part of the housing. 

Two types of front axles are used by the manufacturers of 
automobiles. The I-beam type, which is a one piece drop 



Fig. 120. Full-Floating Axle—Wheel-End Arrangement 

forging, and the tubular or hollow type, which is round and 
has the yoke fitted into the ends. Both types operate on the 
same principle and plan, the only distinction between' the types 



is that one type has the I-beam cross member and the other 
type has a pipe or tubular cross member. 

The front axle consists of an I-beam or tubular cross mem¬ 
ber, which is yoked at each end as shown at A, in Fig. 122. A 
































































AXLE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 


215 


steering knuckle B is held between the ends of the yoke by C, a 
king pin, which allows the knuckle to swing in a half circle. 
D, the spindle or short axle, is provided with a set of radial 
thrust bearings. The wheel is adjusted snugly to the bearings 
E by a castillated nut F. The adjustment is held by a cotter 
pin which extends through the spindle and head of the nut F. 
A short arm extends backward from each steering knuckle, 




Fig. 122. Steering Knuckle and Front Axle Parts 

shown at G, in Fig. 122, and are connected together by an ad¬ 
justable tie or spread rod shown at H. A half circle ball arm 
extends from the knuckle and circles over the axle. A rod or 
drag link forms the connection between the ball arm and the 
steering arm of the steering gear. Fig. 123 shows the loca¬ 
tion of the parts assembled on a typical drop forged I-beam 
front axle. A section of the hub has been removed to show 
the location of the double row radial end thrust ball bearings. 































216 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


This type of bearing is becoming very popular for automobile 
uses. 

Adjustments of the Semi-floating Type of Axle.—The short 

shaft carried in the forward part of the housing has a center 
nut adjustment between the universal joint and the pinion 
gear; moving this notched nut to the right facing the rear 
axle draws the shaft backward and meshes the teeth of the 
pinion gear deeper with the teeth of the ring gear. After 



this adjustment is made, examine the teeth for even mesh; it 
may be necessary to shift the differential unit to secure an even 
bearing. (See chapter on differential gears for detailed in¬ 
structions in regard to differential adjusting.) 

Adjustments on the Full-floating Axle.—The adjustments 
on the full-floating axle are usually made by shifting the dif¬ 
ferential unit, although a pinion gear adjustment is usually 
provided as described above. 

Care.—The housing of both the semi-floating and the full¬ 
floating axle should receive a fresh supply of medium fiber or 
graphite grease every thousand miles. To grease, remove the 
plug on the large part of the housing and force in grease with 
a dope gun until it begins to bulge out of the hole. 

Wash out the housing every five thousand miles, and replace 
the lubricant, as small metallic particles are worn off the gear 
teeth and this grit, which is destructive to the gears and bear¬ 
ings, mixes with the grease making it necessary to remove it 
that often. 

A grease cup will be found located at the outer end of each 
half of the axle housing, which supplies the lubricant for the 
outer bearing. This grease cup should be filled weekly with a 
medium cup grease and given a half turn each day. 






















AXLE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 


217 


Care of Front Axle.—Pack the space between the bearings 
in the hub of the wheel every thousand miles. Use a heavy 
cup grease. The king bolts which hold the steering knuckles 
between the ends of the yokes are hollow and carry a grease 
cup on the head, which forces the grease out through finely 
perforated holes, and lubricates the bushings on which the 
pins take their bearing. This cup should be filled weekly and 
given a half turn each day. 


CHAPTER XXXIII 


BRAKE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 

An automobile is always equipped with tw’o sets of brakes, 
as they are required by law. The functional action of the 
brakes is to check the motion of the car when the driver wishes 
to stop or reduce the rolling speed. The service brake usually 
operates on the external surface, or on the outside of the drum 
flange, and is connected to the right foot pedal through a set 
of linkage. The emergency brake operates on the internal 
surface of the drum, and connects through linkage to a hand 
lever operating on a notched quadrant. The service brake is 
used in ordinary driving to check the rolling motion and to 
stop the car. The emergency brake is used to assist the 
service brake and to hold the car, in case the driver wishes to 
allow it to stand on a grade. 

Fig. 124 shows a set of brakes assembled on the axle ready 
to receive the horizontal flange of the brake drum. The brake 
drum is attached to the wheel ; consequently when a wheel has 
been removed and is about to be replaced, the first operation 
consists of starting the drum flange into the space between the 
lining of the external and internal bands; care should always 
be exercised in making this adjustment, in order not to burr 
the outer edge of the lining, as a brake with an uneven fric¬ 
tional contact surface is of little value in checking the motion 
of the car. 

In Fig. 124, A shows the position of the band on the inside 
of the drum; B shows the contracting tension coil spring which 
holds the bearing surfaces of the band in contact with the 
flat surface of the cam when the brake is not in use; C shows 
the cam shaft, and the flat surfaces of the double action cam, 
which expands the band and brings it into even contact with 

218 


BRAKE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 219 


the inner horizontal surface of drum flange, thereby checking 
the motion of the wheel by frictionally grasping the drum. 

The service brake shown in Fig. 124 is of the external con¬ 
tracting type, which operates on, or frictionally grasps the 
outside horizontal surface of the drum. D shows the lined 
band, which is held in a stationary position from the rear; E 
shows the leverage arrangement with its expanding coil spring, 



Fig. 124. Brake—Types and Adjustment 


which holds the band free from the drum, when the brake is 
not in use; F is the lever to which the pull rod is connected; 
G is the lever on the internal brake cam shaft to which the 
hand lever is connected by the pull rod. 

Fig. 125 shows a new type of internal expanding brake, 
which is being used on many of the late models. The brake 
band in this case is supported at three points and has an ad¬ 
justment at the rear main point of support. The cam has 
been done away with, and the band is expanded by a leverage 
toggle arrangement which operates through a much larger area, 
and is more dependable as there is no danger of its “sticking” 
or turning over, as was often the case with the cam. 

Fig. 126 shows another type of service brake which may be 
encountered on a few of the former models. This type of 

















220 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


brake is usually located on the propeller shaft at the rear end 
of the transmission case. This type of brake operates in the 
same manner as the service brake at the end of the axle. 



Fig. 125. Brake—Showing Toggle Arrangement 

Fig. 126 shows an equalizer which allows for any difference 
that may occur in making adjustments. 



Fig. 127 shows the complete brake assembly, and the points 
of adjustment on late Buick cars. 

Brake Adjustment.—All types of brakes are adjustable. 










































BRAKE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 221 


The service brake usually has two adjusting points, one at the 
drum, which is made by turning the nut on the leverage pull 
pin, and another on the pull rods. A long neck clevis, or a 
long butted turn buckle will always be found on the pull rods, 
or on the rod leading to the equalizer. The adjustment is 



BRAKE SHAFT, 


PULL RODS 


ADJUSTING TURNBUCKLE 
INTERNAL BRAKE SHAFT 
EXTERNAL BRAKE SHAFT 
ADJUSTING THUMB SCREW 


ADJUSTMENT. 


INTERNAL BRAKE BAND 
EXTERNAL BRAKE BAND 


Fig. 127. Brake—Arrangement and Adjustment—“Buick” 


made by turning either to the right to shorten, or take up, and 
to the left to lengthen. The clevis is always threaded to the 
right, while the turn buckle has a right and left thread which 
carries each end of the rod into the butt when it is turned 
to the right. The lock nuts must always be turned up tight 
to the butts after the adjustment is made in order to hold it. 

Brake Care.—A great deal depends upon the proper op¬ 
eration of the brakes. They should be regularly inspected at 
least once a month for loose adjustments and uncleanliness. 
The need of adjustment usually occurs from natural wear, 
while an unclean frictional surface is usually the result of oil 
or grease seepage through the outer axle bearing. A felt 
washer is provided to prevent this from taking place, but as 
these washers are subjected to considerable pressure, they often 
become caked and hardened and lose their absorbing effective¬ 
ness. These washers can be purchased at any accessory store 
for a few cents apiece, and applied with very little trouble. 
































222 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


Cleaning the Surface of the Brake Bands.—This is accom¬ 
plished by removing the wheel and washing the friction con¬ 
tact surface with gasoline, after the surfaces have become thor¬ 
oughly dry. Drop three or four drops of castor or Neat’s foot 
oil on the contact surfaces of the drum, and replace the wheel 
and spin it a few times before releasing the jack. 

Caution.—After you have set the gears for starting, and 
before you release the clutch pedal, always reach and make 
sure that the emergency brake lever is in the neutral position. 
New drivers invariably forget to do this, which results in se¬ 
vere strain on the bearings, and causes them to get loose; the 
average brake band will not stand more than fifteen to twenty 
minutes of continuous contact before it burns or wears beyond 
the point of usefulness. 


CHAPTER XXXIV 


SPRING CARE TESTS 

Information recently gathered from observation and inter¬ 
views shows that the average owner who operates and cares for 
his car, invariably overlooks the springs and their connec¬ 
tions while giving the car the bi-monthly or monthly tighten¬ 
ing-up and greasing, while the balance of the car usually re¬ 
ceives the required attention. 

This fact seems to be due mostly to an oversight, for the 
springs are usually inspected while the car is motionless and 
at this time they do not show defects readily, and have 
the appearance of being rigid, inactive, and compact. 

Weekly Spring Care.—Weekly spring care should consist 
of filling the grease cups (with a medium hard oil cup grease) 
and turning them down until the grease makes its appearance 
at the outer edge of the spring eye. This, under ordinary 
driving conditions, will be sufficient lubrication for one week. 
But in cases where the car receives more than ordinary use 
the grease cups should be given one-half turn every second 
day. The shackle connections should then be wiped dry to 
prevent dust and grit clinging and working into the bearing, 
which causes much wear on even a sufficiently lubricated bear¬ 
ing surface. 

Bi-monthly Spring Care.—Special attention should be given 
at this time to the U-shaped clips which connect the spring 
to the axle. A loose clip means a broken spring at the first 
severe jolt, caused by the rebound taking place between the 
clips. Therefore, tightly adjusted clips will prevent action 
from taking place at the point between the clips where the 
leaves are bolted together and will entirely eliminate spring 

223 


224 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


breakage. Tighten up the nut on the leave guide clip bolt to 
prevent rattling. The shackles should be inspected for side 
play. To determine whether there is side play, jack up the 
frame until the weight is off the spring, then grasp it near the 
shackle and shake with an in and out motion. If there is 
play a rattle thump will be heard. To take out play, remove 
cotter pin and turn up castillated nut snugly on the shackle 
pin. If the nut cannot be turned up a full notch, place a thin 
washer over the end of the pin. The nut, however, should 
not be turned up too tight as a certain amount of action is 
necessary. 

Lubrication of the Spring Leaves. —Lubrication of the 
spring leaves should take place once every month. This 
point must be kept in mind and adhered to, as a spring cannot 
produce the marked degree of action necessary for smooth 
and easy riding, when the sliding surface is dry and rusty. 
The leaves slide on each other when the spring opens and 
closes, and if the sliding surface is not well lubricated the 
movement will be greatly checked by the dry friction; these 
dry surfaces also gather dampness which soon forms into 
dry-rust, which, in time entirely retards action and results 
in a very hard riding car. 

It is not necessary to disassemble the spring at the monthly 
greasing period, unless the spring has been neglected and 
rust has formed on the sliding surfaces. In this case the 
sliding surface of each blade must be cleaned with a piece of 
sand or emery paper. 

When the springs receive regular attention, it is only nec¬ 
essary to jack up the frame until the wheels and axles are 
suspended, the weight of which will usually open the leaves 
sufficiently to insert a film of graphite grease with a thin case 
knife. In some cases where the leaves are highly curved, it 
may be found necessary to drive a small screwdriver in be¬ 
tween them. However, great care should be exercised in doing 
this, as the blades are highly tempered and spring out of 
position very easily. 

Wrapping Springs. —Car owners in some parts of the coun- 


SPRING CARE TESTS 


225 


try grease their springs and wrap them with heavy cord or ad¬ 
hesive tape. While this serves to keep the grease in and the 
dust and dirt out, it also binds the leaves and prevents free 
action. If the car is to be driven for any length of time on 
sandy or muddy roads, wrapping may be found very “bene¬ 
ficial. But use only a water-proof material (heavy oil paper 
or canvas) to wrap with. Cut the material into one and one- 
fourth inch strips, and wrap from the center toward the outer 
end to prevent binding. 

The following shows the results of a spring care test con¬ 
ducted by the writer. The cars were chosen at random and 
only those accepted which had seen six months or more 
service. 

Eighteen owners were interviewed. Six of this number gave 
their springs a thorough greasing and tightening up every 
two weeks, and not one of this group made a complaint of 
any nature regarding breakage, stiffness, or noise. 

Five of the remaining twelve, gave their springs occasional 
attention. Their reports were not entirely unsatisfactory, but 
had a tendency toward such troubles as rattles, squeaks, and 
stiffness in action. 

The remaining seven did not give their springs any atten¬ 
tion whatever, and all made unsatisfactory reports ranging 
from broken leaves, to side play, jingles, squeaks and hard 
riding. 

Therefore the results of careful and regular attention may 
readily .be seen by the reports of the first six owners. All 
nuts and 'connections were tightened, and the sliding surfaces 
of the leaves greased on an average of once every two weeks. 
The springs gave satisfactory results, apd the cars retained 
that easy, soft, springy action, so noticeable, in a new car. 

The reports of the five who gave their springs occasional 
attention w T ould probably have been the same as the first six, 
had they given the proper attention more frequently. But 
they usually waited until the trouble became annoying, which 
caused w r ear on the spring eye, shackle strap, and pin, on 
each occurrence making a good adjustment impossible. The 


226 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


stiffness in action and squeaks were caused by dry frictional 
surfaces between the leaves which prevented free action. 

Types.— There are five standard types of springs, and two 
or three types of special design. The riding qualities of 
all types of springs depend on their length and resiliency, 
which is taken into consideration by the engineer and de¬ 
signer. Consequently there is not much choice between the 
different types. 



Fig. 128. ^-Elliptical Front Spring 


Fig. 128 shows the semi-elliptical type of spring used prin¬ 
cipally for front suspension. The front end of this spring 
is bolted rigidly to the downward end slope of the frame while 
the rear end carries a movable shackle arrangement. 



Fig. 129. Full-Elliptic Spring 


Fig. 129 shows the full elliptical type of spring which may 
be used for either front or rear suspension. The ends may 
be fastened together solidly with a yoke and eye arrangement, 
or shackled as shown in the above cut. 













SPRING CARE TESTS 


227 


Fig. 130 shows a spring of the three-quarters elliptical 
type used in rear suspension only. This type of spring car¬ 
ries a shackle arrangement at the front and rear end which 



allows backward and forward motion to take place very freely, 
consequently it is very necessary to use a very substantial set 
of torque rods to keep the proper alignment. 

Fig. 131 shows the three link or commonly termed platform 



Fig. 131. Platform Spring 


type of spring used only in rear suspension on the heavier 
models. 

Fig. 132 shows the front type of cantilever spring. The 
front end of this type of spring is bolted to a seat on the 
front axle, while the rear end may be fastened directly to 
the under side of the frame or attached to a specially ar- 



























228 THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 

ranged casting seat at the side of the frame. This type of 
spring is sometimes employed in multiple formation. 



Fig. 132. Cantilever Spring, Front 

shows the rear type of cantilever spring, which 
may employ a shackle arrangement on one or both sides, while 



Fig. 133. Cantilever Spring, Rear 


a hinged seat is usually employed near the center or slightly 
over-center toward the front end. 



















CHAPTER XXXV 


ALIGNMENT 

Attention should be given quite frequently to wheel align¬ 
ment, as the life and service of tires depends almost entirely 
upon wheel alignment. 

When either of the front wheels become out of line, through 
a bent spindle, worn spindle pin, loose or worn bearing the 
tire on this wheel is subject to cross traction. That is, when 
the car moves forward, the tire on the out of line wheel is 
forced to move forward by the other three points of traction, 
and as it is not in line with the forward movement the tire 
must push or drag crosswise at the traction point. This re¬ 
sults in the tread being worn or filed off in a very short time, 
exposing the layers of fabric to dampness and wear which 
results in a “blow-out” and ruined tire, which would probably 
have given several thousand miles of service had proper atten¬ 
tion been given to wheel alignment. 

Alignment Test. —To test the alignment, first look at the 
lower side of the springs where they rest on the axle seats. 
If one of the springs has slipped on the seat through a loose 
clamp, the direction and distance of the slip may be noted 
by the rust mark left by the movement. Drive the axle back, 
leave the clamp loose, measure the distance between the cen¬ 
ters of the front and rear hub caps on the unaffected side 
with a tape or string, move the tape to the affected side and 
make the center distances the same, tighten the nuts on all 
clamps using new spring or lock washers. 

Lengthwise Wheel Alignment.— Before lining up the wheels 
lengthwise, jack each wheel separately and shake it to detect a 
loose bearing or worn spindle pin which is usually the seat of 
the trouble. After the defective part has been readjusted or 

229 



230 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


replaced, test the alignment as follows: Using a string or 
straight edge, which should be placed or drawn across the 
front and rear tire, making four contacts as near center as 
possible without interference from the hubs. The string or 
straight edge is then moved to the other side of the car and 
three contacts are made, one on the rear center of the front 
tire, and two across the center of the rear tire. The spread 
rod should then be adjusted to allow the front contact point 
to converge or lean from the line toward the other front 
wheel. 

Mechanical Alignment.— When a motor vehicle turns the 
inside wheel has to describe a curve of smaller radius than 
the outside wheel. A line drawn lengthwise through the 


A 


A 



steering arms, extending from the spindles or knuckles, should 
meet at a point in the center of the rear axle to determine the 
correct wheel base, otherwise the car will turn in two angles, 
which causes the tire on the outside to slide crosswise at the 
































ALIGNMENT 


231 


traction point. Fig. 134 shows the position of the wheels and 
the direction they travel in describing two distinct curves in 
turning to the left. The correct mechanical alignment and 
wheel base will be seen in the diagram, A B. The front 
wheels have been turned to a 45 per cent angle, E-EL lines 
drawn through the spindles will meet at F, a line drawn 
through the rear axle. El in this diagram shows the effect 
on the steering of lengthening the wheel base of the car. In 
this case the wheel base has been lengthened 10" and the 
lines E and El meet at different angles at a point on El. 
The car tries to turn about two distinct centers, as this is an 
impossibility, sliding of the tire occurs. 


CHAPTER XXXVI 


STEERING GEARS, TYPE, CONSTRUCTION 
Operation and Care 

The steering mechanism used in automobile construction is 
arranged to operate independent of the axle, or in other 
words the wheels turn on a pivot, or knuckle, held between 
the yoked ends of the axle. A spindle or axle extends out¬ 
ward from each steering knuckle to accommodate the wheels. 
A set of short arms extend to rear of the steering knuckles; an 
adjustable spacer bar, commonly called a tie or spread rod, 
serves as the connection between the arms. The arms in¬ 
cline slightly toward each other; which causes the inside 
wheel to turn on a shorter angle than the outside wheel when 
turning a corner. Another steering arm carrying a ball at the 
outer end, describes a half circle over the axle, and is at¬ 
tached to either the spread rod arm or the steering knuckle. 
An adjustable rod, or drag-link, carrying a ball socket at 
each end serves as the connection between the steering arm 
extending from steering gear and the half circle arm of the 
knuckle. To adjust wheels see chapter on “Wheels and Axle 
Alignment.” 

Steering Gear Types.— Three types of steering gears are 
commonly used by automobile manufacturers. They are 
namely, the worm and sector, worm and nut, and rack and 
pinion types. 

Fig. 135 shows the construction and operation of the worm 
and sector type. The lower end of the steering shaft carries a 
worm gear which meshes with the sector gear supported by a 
separate shaft. The sector has a ball arm extending down- 

232 


STEERING GEARS, TYPE, CONSTRUCTION 233 


ward, "which moves in a forward and backward direction when 
the steering shaft is turned. 



Adjusting the Worm and Sector Type of Steering Gear.— 

An eccentric bushing is provided to take up play between the 
worm and sector. This adjustment is made by driving the 
notched cone to the right to take out play, and to the left to 
slack up or take out stiffness. 

Fig. 136 shows the worm and nut type of steering gear. 
This type of steering gear as well as the worm and sector, is 
called the irreversible steering gear, which means that no 
reverse action takes place, or is present at the steering 
wheel, should one of the front wheels encounter a stone in 
the road, or drop into a deep rut. The worm and nut type 
consists of a double armed and pivoted steering ana. Each 
arm carries a ball. The drag link socket is attached to the 
ball on the lower arm while the ball on the upper and shorter 
arm fits in a socket in the nut through which the worm on the 
steering shaft passes. This nut is threaded to fit the worm 
which passes through it and moves up and down on the worm 
according to the direction which the steering wheel is turned. 












234 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


The housing of this type of steering must be well packed with 
a light cup or graphic grease to prevent the screw or worm 
from binding, which will make steering difficult and tiresome. 


Steering Column 



Fig. 137 shows the rack and pinion type of steering gear. 
This type of steering gear is used on a few of the lighter 
weight cars and is not as dependable owing to a reverse action 
through the steering mechanism when an obstruction is en- 



Fig. 137. Rack and Pinion Type Steering Gear 


countered by one of the front wheels. This type of steering 
device consists of a solid shaft with the steering w 7 heel keyed 
to the upper end. 





















STEERING GEARS, TYPE, CONSTRUCTION 235 


A small spur gear is keyed and locked to the lower end, 
and meshes with a horizontal toothed shaft which slides inside 
of a housing. The connection between the steering gear and 
the steering knuckles is made by a short rod or drag link 
carrying a split ball seat on each end. One end of 
the drag link socket is fitted to a ball on the end of the hori¬ 
zontal toothed shaft, while the socket on the other end is 
fitted to a ball on the upper end of the bolt which connects 
the tie rod and knuckle. 

Steering Gear Care.— Steering gears should be closely ad¬ 
justed. The housing should be packed with a medium hard 
oil or graphite grease at least once in every thousand miles 
that the car is driven. All bolts and nuts connecting the 
different parts of the steering gear should be regularly in¬ 
spected and kept in a perfectly tight condition. 



Fig. 138 shows the location of the spark and gas control 
levers which usually operate on a quadrant on the upper side 
of the steering wheel. The short lever always controls the 
spark, which may be advanced or retarded by moving it. The 
long lever is attached to the carburetor, and controls the speed 
of the motor by regulating the volume of gas vapor supplied 
to the motor. 







CHAPTER XXXVII 


BEARING TYPES, USE AND CARE 

Three types of bearings are being used by the manufacturers 
of automobiles and gasoline engines. They are, namely, the 
plain bearing or bushing, the solid and flexible roller-bearing, 
and the double and single row of self-aligning ball bearings. 

Bearings were designed to prevent wear and friction between 
parts, which operate on, or against each other. 

Fig. 139 shows three types of plain bearings. A, the split 
type of plain bearing, is used widely by the manufacturers 
of engines as main bearings to support the crank shaft and 



at the large end of the connecting rod. B is a cylindrical 
type of plain end bushing, used to support light shafts in end 
walls. C is a center or sleeve type of plain bushing. 

All three types of plain bearings described above will stand 
unusually hard use, but must be kept w T ell lubricated or run 
in an oil bath to prevent frictional heating and excessive 
wear. Fig. 140 shows two types of shims used between the 
retainer jaw of a split bearing, which allows the wear to be 
taken up when the bearing gets loose and begins to pound. 
The shims may be either solid or loose leafed, and are of 
different thickness. The loose leafed shim has an outer casing, 

236 





















BEARING TYPES, USE AND CARE 


237 


which contains seven to ten metal sheets of paper-like thin¬ 
ness, which may be removed to the exact thickness required for 
an acurately fitted bearing-. 


j 




Fig. 141 shows the Bock type of radial and end thrust 
roller bearing. The end of each roller is provided with a sec¬ 
tion of a perfect sphere which rolls in unison with the tapered 
rollers and makes the end contact practically frictionless. The 



advantage claimed for this type of bearing is that it embodies 
both the ball and roller bearing strength and reduces the 
friction on the roller and thrust end to a minimum. This type 
of bearing is used in the hub of the wheel, which must be 
cleaned and well packed with a medium grease every thousand 

































238 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


miles. The bearing is best cleaned by dropping it into a 
container of kerosene and scrubbing it with a stiff paint brush. 
Do not run the car with the hub cap off. 

Fig. 142 shows the Hyatt flexible type of roller bearing. 
This type consists of an inner and outer race and a cage 
which holds the flexible rolls. The flexible rolls are spirally 
wound from a high grade sheet alloy steel. The rolls are 
placed in the cage in alternative positions. This arrange- 



Fig. 142. Hyatt Roller Bearing 


ment of rollers has a tendency to work the grease back and 
forth on the surfaces of the races. Another advantage claimed 
for this type of bearing, is that the weight is more evenly dis¬ 
tributed at the point of contact, due to the fact that the 
wound rolls allow a certain amount of resiliency, and accepts 
road shocks easily, which reduces the amount of frictional 
wear to a minimum. This type of bearing requires the same 
attention as the Bock, described above. 

Fig. 143 shows a type of double row ball bearings. Ball 
bearings are being used more extensively each year by the 
manufacturers of light and heavy duty motor vehicles. The 
efficient reliability and ease of action has proven to be the 
main factor in the development of this type of bearing. One 
of the big features in considering ball bearings is that a ball 
rolls equally well in any direction, and the slightest effort 
















































BEARING TYPES, USE AND CARE 


239 


will start it to rolling. It is a proven fact, that a ball is 
started more easily than any other type of supportive ele¬ 
ment. This explains why ball bearings of all types come 
nearest to being frictionless. Once upon a time people be- 



Fig. 143. Double Row Radial Ball Bearing 

lieved that the ball in ball bearings carried the load by point 
of contact, which is not true, as ball bearings carry the load 
on a definite area. And in bearing construction, such as shown 
in Fig. 143, where the inner and outer race curves around the 
















240 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


balls and increases the contact area, the contact capacity is 
greatly increased. Thus a one-fourth inch S. K. F ball showed 
a crushing resistance of nine thousand and seven hundred 
pounds, while the one-half inch ball showed a crushing strength 
of twenty-five thousand pounds. The sectional view of a 
radial bearing, shown in Fig. 142, consists essentially of four 
elements, which are the following: (a) The outer ball race, 
(b) the two rows of balls, (c) the ball retainer, and (d) the 
inner ball race. 

The inner surface of the outer race is spherically ground 
in the form of a section of a sphere whose center is the center 
of the axis of rotation. This provides that both rows of balls 
shall carry the load at all times. This reduces the load car¬ 
ried by each ball to the least amount. 

The ball retainer is made of a single piece, which provides 
for proper spacing of the balls, and positively circulates the 
lubricant. The retainer is open at the sides, which permits 
free access of lubricant, and makes inspection easy. 

The inner ball race contains two grooves to accommodate 
the two rows of balls, and the curvature of the outer race 
is slightly larger than that of the balls. The fact that both 
inner and outer races are curved gives an ample surface con¬ 
tact between the balls and the races. 

Fig. 144 shows a double thrust bearing. This type of bear¬ 
ing was designed to take end thrust in both directions. It is 
used to stabilize the shaft against lateral motion and to 
accept reversing thrust loads. It is also automatically self¬ 
aligning. 

The assembly of balls and races forms a section of a 
sphere within a steel casing. The inside of this casing is 
ground spherically to the same radius as the spherical seats, 
thus permitting the assembled bearing parts to adjust them¬ 
selves to any shaft deflection. 

This type of double thrust bearing is so designed that the 
central rotating disc, two rows of balls, and the aligning seats 
are combined in a single unit within the casting. 

The unit construction of this type of bearing insures ease 


BEARING TYPES, USE AND CARE 


241 


in mounting", and eliminates much costly machine work usually 
encountered in setting double thrust bearings, and renders the 
bearing practically dirt, dust and fool-proof. If it becomes 
necessary to disassemble the machine upon which these bear¬ 
ings are mounted, the user has every assurance that the shafts 
can be relocated precisely in its original position, with the 



Fig. 144. Double Row Thrust Bearing 


minimum of time, labor and expense. This type of bearing is 
also entirely free from adjustment, loose parts, costly machine 
work, and the possible abuse at the hands of inexperienced 
workman are entirely done away with. 



Fig. 145 shows a thrust bearing designed to carry the load 
in one direction, along the shaft, and consists of two hardened 
steel discs provided with grooved ball-races, and a single row 
of balls held in position between the races by means of a 
suitable retainer. 

Cleaning Bearings.— To clean bearings, use gasoline, kero- 


























242 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


sene, or a weak solution of baking soda and soft water. Place 
the cleaning fluid in a shallow receptacle, take a piece of wire 
and bend a hook on the end, jDlace the hook through the center 
of the bearing and rinse up and down in the fluid, spinning it 
with the hand occasionally. If some of the grease has dried 
or baked on the roll or roller guide or retainer and refuses to 
be dislodged by this method, lay the bearing flat and scrub 
with a brush which has been dipped into the cleaning fluid. 


CHAPTER XXXVIII 


CAR ARRANGEMENT, PARTS, ADJUSTMENT, CARE 

1. Oil cup on shackle bolt or loop pin. Fill every week 
with medium cup grease giving one half turn every second day. 

2. Right front spring. Loosen the small clips No. 47, clean 
off all dirt and grease with a brush dipped in kerosene, and 
jack up the frame, which will open the leaves. Force graphite 
between the leaves, let the frame down and wipe off all the 
grease that is forced out, in order to avoid the gathering of 
dust and grit (see chapter on Spring Care). 

3. Front lamp. Keep brackets and vibration rod well 
tightened. Wipe lens with a damp cloth (inside and outside), 
and polish with tissue paper. Adjust or focus both lamps so 
that the center rays will strike side by side 45 feet ahead of 
the car. Push the light bulbs well into the sockets, otherwise 
a dark spot will appear in the center. Test the wire con¬ 
nection plugs occasionally for weak springs or sticking con¬ 
tact pins. 

4. Radiator (see chapter on Cooling Systems). 

5. Radiator Cap. Grease or oil thread occasionally. 

6. Radiator connecting hose (see chapter on Cooling Sys¬ 
tems) . 

7. The fan. It usually operates on a ball and cone bear¬ 
ing, which must be kept well adjusted and greased to prevent 
a clattering or rumbling noise. 

8. - The fan belt. This should be well tightened to prevent 
slipping, which will cause over-heating. Apply belt dressing 
occasionally to prevent dry-rot and cracking. 

9. Adjust the starter chain from time to time by setting 
down the idler gear. 

10. Metal tube for carrying the high tension leads to the 

243 


244 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


spark plugs. Remove the wires from the tube when over¬ 
hauling and tape worn insulation. 

11. Spark plugs (see chapter on Spark Plug Care). 

12. The horn. Keep connection tight, clean gum and old 
grease off the armature and adjust the brushes when it fails to 
work. 

13. Priming cups. Cover the threads with graphite or white 
lead and screw them into the cylinder head tightly to prevent 
compression leaks. 

14. Horn bracket. Keep well tightened, to prevent vibra¬ 
tion. 

15. Clutch pedal. It can usually be lengthened or short¬ 
ened to accommodate leg stretch, oil and grease bearings, and 
connecting joint each week. 

1G. Primer or choker, which operates the air valve on the 
carburetor. 

17. Steering column. 

18. Steering wheel (see chapter on Steering Gears). 

19. Horn shorting push button. 

20. Spark control lever. 

21. Gas throttle control. 

22. Transmission (see chapter on Transmission). 

23. Brake rods (see chapter on Brakes). 

24. Universal joint (see chapter on Universal Joints). 

25. The frame. 

26. Emergency brake leverage connection. 

27. Service brake leverage connection. 

28. Threaded clevis for lengthening or shortening brake 
rods. 

29. Crown fender. 

30. India rubber bumper. 

31. Brake band guide. 

32. Gasoline or fuel tank. 

33. Filler spout and cap. 

34 Spring shackle hinge. 

35. Tire carrier. 

36. Spare tire and demountable rim. 


CAR ARRANGEMENT, PARTS 


245 


CD 



Fig. 146. Car Arrangement 





































246 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


37. Radiator fastening stud. 

38. Starting crank ratchet. 

39. Spread rod with left and right threaded clevis at each 
end. 

40. The crank case. 

41. Crank case drainage plug. 

42. The flywheel and clutch. 

43. Box for carrying storage battery. 

44. Transmission drain plug. 

45. The muffler (see chapter on Muffler Care). 

46. Main drive shaft. 

47. Spring blade alignment clamp. 

48. Rear universal joint. 

49. Service brake lever. 

50. Demountable rim clamp bolt. 

51. Differential housing on rear axle. 


/ 


CHAPTER XXXIX 


OVERHAULING THE CAR 

Before starting to dismantle the car for overhauling, see 
that all the necessary tools are at hand and in good condi¬ 
tion. Place them out separately on a bench or board near 
the car. Then secure a number of boxes to hold the parts of 
each unit in order that they may not become intermixed. 

When overhauling is to take place, start at the front of the 
car and work back. First, disconnect and remove the radiator 
and inspect the tubes for dents or jams. If any of any con¬ 
sequence are found, pry the fins up and down on the tubes 
clearing the affected part, which is removed and replaced with 
a new piece of tubing and soldered in place. Then turn a 
stream of water into the radiator and let it run for fully an 
hour, or until it is fully flushed out. Next, inspect the hose 
connections, as the rubber lining often becomes cracked and 
breaks away from the fabric which retards the circulation, by 
filling the passage with hanging shreds of rubber. Then plug 
up the lower entrance to the water jackets and fill the jackets 
with a solution of 2 gal. of water to V 2 lb. of washing soda. 
Let this solution stand in the jackets for one-half hour; then 
flush out with clean water. The carburetor and manifolds 
should be removed and cleaned. The float, if cork, should be 
allowed to dry. It is then given a coat of shellac and allowed 
to dry before reassambling the carburetor. 

The engine should then be turned over slowly to test the 
compression on each cylinder. If it is found to be strong on 
each cylinder, the piston rings and cylinder wall may be 
passed as being in good condition. In case you find one cyl¬ 
inder is not as strong as the others, the trouble may be ascer¬ 
tained by inspection. It may be caused by a scored cylinder 

247 


248 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


wall, worn piston rings, leaky gasket, or pitted valve seats. 
Next remove the head of the motor and remove the carbon with 
a scraper and wash with kerosene. If the motor is not of the 
detachable head type, remove the valve cup and use a round 
wire brush to loosen the carbon. It is best in this case to burn 
out the carbon with oxyacetylene flame. 

Next remove the valves and test the springs for shrinkage 
or weakness. If any are found that do not conform in length, 
replace them with new springs. Grind the valves (see previ¬ 
ous Chapter on Valve Grinding). 

Next examine the water pump and pack the boxing with a 
wick or hemp cylinder packing. 

Cleaning the Lubricating System.—Remove the plug in the 
bottom of the crank case and drain out the oil. Replace the 
plug and pour 1 gal. of kerosene into the crank case through 
the breather pipe and spin the motor. Then remove the drain 
plug and allow the kerosene to drain out. After it has quit 
running, turn the motor over a few times and allow it to 
drain one-half hour. Replace the plug and fill the crank case 
to the required level with fresh cylinder oil. Next, remove 
the plate from the timing gear case and inspect the gears for 
wear and play. If they are packed in grease, remove the old 
grease and wash out the case with kerosene. If they receive 
their oil supply from the crank case it will only be necessary 
to inspect them for wear. Then replace the motor head, 
timing gear case plate and manifolds, using new gaskets and 
new lock washers. Next clean the spark plugs and ignition 
systems (see chapter on Spark Plugs and Ignition System). 

Then we proceed to the different types of clutches. The 
cone clutch usually does not require cleaning, but in cases 
where it has been exposed to grease or lubricating oil the 
leather face may be cleaned with a cloth dampened in kerosene, 
after which a thin coating of Neat’s foot oil is applied to the 
leather facing. The cone is then replaced and the springs ad¬ 
justed until it runs true. This is determined by holding it 
out and spinning it. 

The wet and dry plate clutches are treated in much the same 


OVERHAULING THE CAR 


249 


manner. First drain out all the oil or grease and wash out 
the housing with kerosene. Examine all parts for wear and 
adjust or replace loose parts. Fill the housing up to the 
slip shaft with fresh oil or grease, that is, providing it is a 
wet plate clutch. The dry plate clutch need only be washed 
with kerosene to remove any grease or dirt that has lodged on 
the plates. 

Cleaning the Transmission. —First drain off the oil and 
wash the gear with a brush dipped in kerosene. Then inspect 
the bearings for looseness. If you find one badly worn, re¬ 
place the bearing at each end of the shaft. Next, examine the 
gears. If they are blunt, burred or chipped, smooth them off 
on an emery wheel or with a coarse file. Wash out the case 
with kerosene and fill with a thick transmission oil or grease 
until the fartherest up meshing point is covered to the 
depth of from 1 to 1^2 inches. Examine the slots or notches 
on the horizontal sliding shafts in the cover of the case which 
holds the gears in or out of mesh. If the slots are badly worn 
it will be necessary to replace sliding shafts or it may be nec¬ 
essary to replace the springs which hold the ball or pin to the 
shaft and slots. 

The universal joints are cleaned and freed of all grease and 
dirt. The bushings and trunion head are inspected for loose¬ 
ness. If any exists a new set of bushings will usually rem¬ 
edy the trouble. The housing should then be packed with a 
medium or fairly heavy cup grease. 

Next we come to the differential which is treated in the 
same manner as the transmission, except that the housing is 
packed with a much heavier grease, and new felt washers are 
placed at the outer end of the housing where the axle extends 
to the wheels. 

The rear system is then jacked up until both wheels clear 
the ground. The brakes are then tested and adjusted (see 
chapter on Brakes), and the rear wheels tested for looseness. 
If the axle is of the full floating type looseness may be 
taken up by withdrawing the axle and loosening the lock nut 
back of the cone and driving the notched cone ring to the 


250 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


right (facing it) until the play is taken up. When looseness 
is found in the semi-floating or three quarters floating axle it 
is necessary to replace the outer bearing which is located 
inside of the outer end of the housing tube. 

Next examine the springs (see chapter on Springs and 
Spring Tests). 

This brings us to the steering gear, which should be in¬ 
spected, tightened up, and freed from all play at the various 
joints and connections, after which it should be well packed 
with grease. 

The front wheels should be jacked up and tested for loose 
or worn bearings and spindle pins. The bearings can usually 
be adjusted while the loose spindle pin or bushing should be 
replaced. After the bearings have been adjusted or replaced, 
pack the space in the hubs between the bearings with a medium 
hard oil or cup grease, which will sufficiently lubricate the 
bearings for 2000 miles of service. 

The wheels and axles are then lined up (See chapter on 
Alignment). 

Next, take a piece of sharp wire and remove all the dirt, 
gum, and hard grease from oil holes supplying clevis joints 
and plain bearings. Take up all play which is liable to pro¬ 
duce noise and rattles with new bolts, pins and washers. 
Clean and fill all grease cups boring out the stem heads with 
a piece of wire. 

(See chapter on Washing, Painting, and Top and Body 
Care.) 


CHAPTER XL 


.REPAIR EQUIPMENT 

The necessary repair equipment should be divided into two 
sets, one to be carried with the car, which we will call road 
repair necessities, such as 25 ft. of %" manilla hemp rope, 
which will probably come in very handy and save the original 
cost many times in one year. Even with good roads and the 
general tendency toward improvements, there still remains a 
great many miles of bad road that becomes very troublesome 
with their customary chuck holes and slippery brims, which 
often lead a motorist to bring up in a ditch after a short rain 
storm. The advantages of this rope are explained in this way; 
should you slide into the ditch or get into a deep rut, the 
wheels will usually spin and you are helplessly stuck. A pull 
from a passing motorist, or farmer, will help you out of your 
difficulty. Should any part of your car break, or give out, 
any passing motorist or farmer will give you a tow to the 
nearest garage and thereby avoid delays. 

Therefore, we will head our list of road repairs with: 25 
ft. of %" manilla hemp rope, 2 inner tubes, 1 blowout patch, 
1 outer shoe, 1 set of chains, 1 jack, 1 pump, 1 tire gauge, 1 
tube repair outfit and patches, an extra spark plug, several 
cores and terminals, a few feet of primary and secondary wire, 
1 box of assorted bolts, nuts, washers and cotter pins, 1 qt. 
can of lubricating oil, 1 complete set of good tools neatly 
packed in a small box and secured to the floor of the car under 
the rear seat by fastening both ends of a strap to the floor 
and placing a buckle in the center which will hold the box 
securely and avoid all noise. 

Garage repair equipment should consist of the following: 
1 set of tire jacks, 1 small vulcanizing set and supplies, 1 can 

251 


252 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


of medium cup grease, 1 can or tank of lubricating- oil, 1 small 
vise, 1 box of felt washers, 1 box of assorted cotter joins, 1 
box of assorted nuts, 1 box of assorted lo*ck washers, 1 box 
assorted cap screws and bolts, 1 set of assorted files, 1 hack 
saw, 1 Stilson wrench, 1 dope gun, 1 air pressure oil can, 1 
valve lifter, several valve and assorted springs, 1 box of auto 
soap, 1 sponge and a good chamois skin. 

This outfit should all be purchased at the same time and 
each supply and tool packed or placed in respective places, 
so that it will not be necessary to look far and wide when 
you wish to use some particular tool. With this equipment, 
and some knowledge and patience, the average man should 
be able to keep his car in excellent condition by doing his 
own adjusting and repairing. 


CHAPTER XLI 


CAR CLEANING, WASHING AND CARE 

Body.—The body is the carrying part of the car and usually 
consists of an oak or ash frame covered with a thin sheet 
steel. It is bolted to the frame of the car, and aside from 
washing and cleaning and keeping the bolts tight to prevent 
squeaks, it requires no further care. 

Body Washing.—When about to wash the body, soak the 
dirt off with a gentle open stream of cold water. That is, 
remove the nozzle from the hose, and do not rub. Remove 
mud before it gets dry and hard whenever possible. Grease 
can be removed with soap suds and a soft sponge. Use a 
neutral auto soap, and rub as little as possible. Rinse thor¬ 
oughly with a gentle stream of cold water, and dry and pol¬ 
ish with a clean piece of chamois skin. If the body has a 
dull appearance after washing, due to sun exposure or too 
frequent washing, apply a good body polish lightly and polish 
until thoroughly dry with a clean piece of gauze or cheese 
cloth. 

Running Gear Washing.—Scrape the caked grease and dirt 
off from the brake drums and axles, and scrub lightly with a 
soft brush dipped in soap suds. Rinse thoroughly with a 
gentle stream of cold water. Dry with a piece of cloth or a 
chamois. Old pieces of chamois skin which are too dirty to 
use on the body can be used to dry the running gear. If the 
running gear takes on a dirty appearance after becoming dry, 
go over it with a cloth dampened with body polish. Tighten 
up all bolts and make all adjustments while the car is clean. 

Engine Cleaning.—Clean the engine with a paint brush 
dipped in kerosene. Then go over it with a cloth dampened 
with kerosene. 


253 


254 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


Top Cleaning.—The top should never be folded until it is 
thoroughly cleaned and dried. Dust on the outside can be re¬ 
moved by washing it with clear cold water and castile soap. 
Be sure to rinse it thoroughly with clear water. The inside 
should be dusted out with a whisk broom. Be careful when 
folding it and see that the cloth is not pinched between the 
sockets and bows, and always put on the slip cover when it is 
folded to keep out the dust and dirt. 

Curtain Cleaning.—Wash the curtains with castile soap. 
After they are dry go over them with a cloth dampened in 
body polish. Always roll the curtains; never fold them. 

Cleaning Upholstering.—If the car is upholstered with 
leather or imitation leather, it should be washed with warm 
water and castile soap, then wiped off thoroughly with a clean 
cloth dampened in clear warm water. If the upholstering is 
with cloth it should be brushed thoroughly with a stiff whisk 
broom, then gone over lightly with a cloth dampened in water 
to which a few drops of washing ammonia has been added. 

Rug Cleaning.—Clean the rugs with a vacuum cleaner, or 
stiff whisk broom. 

Windshield Cleaning.—Add a few drops of ammonia or 
kerosene to a pint of warm water; and wash the wind shield 
with this solution and polish with a soft cloth or tissue paper. 

Sedan or Closed Body Cleaning.—Follow directions given 
for cleaning upholstering and windshields. 

Tire Rim Cleaning.—Remove the tires twice each season. 
Drive the dents out of the rims, rub off all rust with sand 
paper, and file off all sharp edges and paint the rims with 
a metal filler. Allow the paint to dry thoroughly before re¬ 
placing the tire. Rust on the rims causes rapid tire and tube 
deterioration. 

Tire Cleaning.—Rinse the mud and dirt off the tires, and 
wash them with soap suds and a coarse sponge. Rinse with 
clear water. 

Lens Cleaning.—To clean the light lens follow the instruc¬ 
tions given above for cleaning windshields. 

Cover the car at night to prevent garage dust from settling 


CAR CLEANING, WASHING AND CARE 255 


into the pores of the paint. This type of dust causes the 
varnish to check and take on a dull dirty appearance, and is 
very hard to remove without the use of soap. Use a neutral 
soap and rinse thoroughly with clear cold water. 

A good serviceable throw-cover can be made from any kind 
of cheap light goods, or by sewing several old sheets together. 

Caution.—Do not dust the car immediately after driving it 
in the sun and never use a feather duster as this only pads 
the dust into the varnish, and scratches it. 

A good dusting cloth is made by dampening a soft cloth 
w T ith an oil polish. The cloth should be left to dry in the sun 
for several hours after being dampened with oil. 

Rinsing the body off with clear cold water and drying it 
with a chamois skin is always preferable as it produces a 
clean appearance and freshens the paint. 


CHAPTER XLII 


TIRES, BUILD, QUALITY, AND CARE 

Building a tire is like building a bouse or laying a cement 
sidewalk; the foundation must be right or the job will not 
stand up. 

The foundation of a tire as every motorist knows consists 
of alternative layers of rubber, fabric, or cord, covered with 
a tread and breaker strip of rubber. The tread and breaker 
strip, however, are not worth the space they occupy if they 
are placed over a poorly constructed foundation of cheaply 
made fabric. Therefore, great care should be exercised in 
choosing a tire of standard make which has been tested, in¬ 
spected, and guaranteed to be in perfect condition, and gives 
a mileage guarantee. 

The cheaper grades of tires may be very deceiving in looks, 
but the point remains, that beneath the tread and breaker 
strip there must be something that is cheaper in quality than 
the material used in building a standard tire or it could 
not be sold for less, as tire building material sells at a market 
price obtainable to all; and the standard tire is usually pro¬ 
duced in large quantities at a small profit, which may be seen 
by comparing the production records and the dividends paid 
on capitalization. 

This point alone shows the wise economy in purchasing tires 
of standard build and avoiding all so-called low priced tires 
as they usually cost the motorist considerable more before the 
average mileage of a good tire is obtained. 

Tires given close attention will usually give from one to two 
thousand more miles of service than those that do not re¬ 
ceive prompt attention. Therefore, close inspection should be 
made frequently for cuts, rents, stone bruises, or a break in 

256 


TIRES, BUILD, QUALITY, AND CARE 


257 


the tread which exposes the underlying fabric to wear and 
dampness. 

When a break is discovered in either the tread or breaker 
strip, it should be slightly enlarged and well cleaned. A coat 
of raw rubber cement is applied and allowed to dry. An¬ 
other coat of cement is applied, and when this coat is fairly 
dry, fill the indenture with raw rubber gum and cook for 
thirty minutes with a small vulcanizer. The cement, rubber, 
and vulcanizer may be purchased at any accessory store for 
a couple of dollars. 

Tire Care.—Always keep the garage floor clean and free 
from oil, grease and gasoline, in order that the tires may not 
come in contact with it or stand in it. All three are deadly 
enemies to rubber. This is easily accomplished by spreading a 
thin layer of sawdust or bran on the floor and dampening it. 
This not only makes floor cleaning easy but also keeps the air 
moist and causes the dust to settle quickly. 

When a tire comes in contact with either grease, oil, or 
gasoline, it should immediately be washed with warm water 
and castile soap. 

Mud must not be allowed to dry and bake on the tires as it 
causes the rubber to loose its springy elastic qualities, and 
dry-rot or rubber scurvy takes place immediately, and the 
tread begins to crack and crumble. 

Tire Chains.—Use tire chains only when they are absolutely 
necessary to overcome road conditions, as the use of chains 
under the most ideal conditions results in a certain amount 
of damage to the tires, and also causes destruction to improved 
roads. Chains are easily put on by stretching them out at 
the rear of the car and rolling the car on them. The clamps 
should be placed forward in order that the contact with the 
road may serve to keep them closed. 

Adjust the chains to the tire loosely in order that the cross 
chains may work around and distribute the wear evenly. 

Cross Chains.—Inspect the cross chains occasionally for 
wear and sharp edges. 

Do not use springs across the front of the wheel to hold 


258 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


the chains, as they prevent the cross chains from working 
around on the tire and the opposite side chain is often drawn 
onto the tread, and as these chains are not continuous, the 
link connections wear and cut the tread exposing the under¬ 
lying layers of fabric to dampness and wear. 

Tube Care.—W T hen an extra tube is carried with the car 
shake some tire talc or soap stone on it and wrap with tissue 
paper. It can then be carried in a small box with the tools 
without being damaged from vibration. 

Tube Repairing.—A tube should always be vulcanized to 
make the repair permanent; but in case you must make a 
road repair and have not a vulcanizer with you, an emergency 
repair can be made by sticking on a patch. The surface 
of the tube and the patch is cleaned and roughened with a 
fine file or piece of emery paper. A coat of cement is applied 
next and allowed to dry. Another coat of cement is applied 
and allowed to dry until it becomes tacky. The patch is then 
pressed on the tube and held under pressure fifteen or twenty 
minutes until the cement is dry. This repair will serve for 
a short time but should be made permanent at the first op¬ 
portunity. 

Tire Storage.—When the car is to be stored' for the winter, 
the tires should be left on the wheels and deflated to thirty 
pounds pressure (that is, after they have been relieved of the 
weight of the car), except in cases where the garage is cold 
and very damp and subjected to weather changes. In this 
case remove the tires and hang them up in a cool dry place 
(store room or cellar). 

Always remove the old valve cores from the valve stems 
and replace them with new ones before putting the tires back 
into service, as the rubber plungers deteriorate very rapidly 
when inactive. Valve cores can be purchased at any service 
station in a small tin container for thirty-five to fifty cents 
per dozen. 


CHAPTER XLIII 


ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 
Tuning Hints 

The average car owner usually fights shy of the electrical 
system. This deserves attention when overhauling the car, 
as well as any other part of the car, and a few simple pre¬ 
cautions will go a long way toward eliminating electrical 
troubles. 

The entire electrical system should be gone over. One of 
the most important things demanding inspection is the wiring. 
It often happens that the insulation becomes chafed or worn, 
through contact with other parts of the car. It is, therefore, 
important to look over the wiring very carefully. Where 
there is any doubt as to the insulation being insufficient, new 
wires should be used. This eliminates the possibility of there 
being an accidental ground, or short circuit, rendering a part 
or the entire system inoperative. 

All terminals should be gone over to determine whether 
they are clean and tight. This is especially true of the ter¬ 
minals on the storage battery, and at the point where the 
battery is grounded to the frame of the car if it is a single 
wire system. 

The connections between the storage battery and the start¬ 
ing motor should be clean and free from corrosion. If these 
connections are not tight and clean, improper performance 
of the starting motor is the result. 

Apply a small amount of vaseline to the battery terminals 
for protection of the metal from the action of the acid fumes 
and prevention of corrosion. It is well to have the battery 
inspected by a battery specialist and any necessary repairs 
taken care of. 


259 


260 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


Distributor and relay points should be examined to see if 
they are pitted or burned. If they are, they should be 
smoothed down with a fine platinum file and adjusted to the 
proper gap. It is essential that the contact points meet 
squarely. If this is not done burning and pitting will re¬ 
sult. 

The generator and starting motor commutator should be ex¬ 
amined for undue wear and high mica. It may be neces¬ 
sary in order to insure good performance that the commutator 
be turned down in a lathe and the mica undercut. 

The brushes should be properly seated by careful sanding. 
This is especially necessary when the commutator is turned 
down. It is desirable to have three-quarters of the brush 
face bearing on the commutator. This can be determined by 
examination of the glazed area on the brush after running 
a short time. 

Should the starter drive be of the bendix type, the threaded 
shaft and pinion should be cleaned, and any grease which has 
hardened should be removed. 

Lamps should be examined. Dim and burned out lamps 
should be replaced. 

All connections of the lighting and ignition switch should 
be inspected. It should be noted whether the terminals are 
touching, or nearly touching. If any wires are rubbing thus, 
entailing the possibility of a short circuit or ground, they 
should be fixed. 

Electric cables that rub on sharp edges of the battery box 
will soon wear through the insulation from vibration of the 
car and a short circuit will occur that may be hard to find. 
Such parts of the wire should be well protected with adhesive 
tape and should be also frequently inspected. 

High tension currents are very hard to control, and a short 
or leakage often occurs where the wire is cramped. The 
center wire works or wears through the rubber insulation 
causing the current to jump to the nearest mettle part. This 
kind of trouble is especially hard to locate as the outer sur¬ 
face of the braided insulation does not show the break. 


ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 


261 


It is a good plan to examine the wiring for short circuits 
occasionally in this manner. When putting the car in at 
night, close the garage door and turn out the lights, running 
the motor at various speeds and gently moving each wire. 
If there are any short or grounded circuits a brilliant spark 
will jump at the defective point. 


CHAPTER XLIV 


AUTOMOBILE PAINTING 

Painting a car requires a great amount of patience. But 
a fairly good job may be done by the average amateur 
painter, providing the work is done carefully and exactly. 
However, this work should be undertaken only in a warm, 
dry room where it is possible to keep an even temperature. 

The old paint is first removed with a paint remover, or 
solution which is applied to the surface and allowed to pene¬ 
trate into the pores. Another coat is then applied. The sur¬ 
face is then scraped with a putty knife until it is smooth 
and free from the old paint. In some cases it may be found 
necessary to use a blow torch to soften the old paint. 

After the old paint has been thoroughly removed, the rough 
spots should be smoothed over with a piece of sand or emery 
paper, and all counter sunk screw heads, joinings, and 
scratches filled with putty, to make an even surface. The 
metal primer is applied and allowed to dry. A second coat 
consisting of equal parts of white lead, turpentine and boiled 
oil is next applied and allowed to dry. Three or four coats 
of color are applied next and allowed to dry. Colors come 
in a paste form, and may be turned into a paste by adding 
a little turpentine. Two coats of color and an equal amount 
of rubbing varnish are next applied in turn and rubbed 
with powdered pumice stone and water. The car is then 
stripped and allowed to dry, and the job finished by apply¬ 
ing a coat of finishing varnish. 

All the foreign matter and grease is removed from the run¬ 
ning gear. The rough places are scraped and rubbed with a 
piece of emery paper. Two coats of metal primer are applied 
and allowed to dry. A coat of color varnish is applied which 
completes the job. 


262 


CHAPTER XLV 


CARBON REMOVING 

It is necessary to remove the carbon deposits from the 
combustion chambers and piston heads at frequent intervals 
in order to maintain an economical and efficient motor. 

There are various methods and ways of doing this with¬ 
out removing the casting or cylinder head; that is, providing 
regular attention is given to prevent the deposit from baking 
and forming in a shale which can be removed only by burn¬ 
ing or scraping. 

There are a number of carbon removing compounds on the 
market which give excellent satisfaction, although some of 
these compounds may prove very harmful unless the direc¬ 
tions are followed very carefully. 

A great many owners use kerosene once or twice a month. 
An ounce or two may be poured into each cylinder while they 
are quite warm and«allowed to stand for several hours. The 
motor is then turned over a few times which allows the kero¬ 
sene to escape through the valves. The particles of carbon 
are blown out through the muffler when the motor is started. 
Others prefer to feed it into the motor through the car¬ 
buretor. This is done by speeding up the motor and feeding 
a little at a time into the float chamber or air valve. Others 
use chloroform, turpentine, and alcohol in the same w r ay. 

The latest method is to take the car to a garage and have 
the carbon burnt out occasionally with a carbon dioxide flame. 
This vaporizes and consumes the carbon and blows it out in 
the form of soot. The flame of an acetylene welding outfit 
may be used successfully. Great care must be taken to pre¬ 
vent fire. The carburetor is removed and the fuel line drained 

and tied out of range of the flame. 

263 


TROUBLE HINTS 


TROUBLES 


TROUBLE 


CAUSE 


REMEDY 


Motor misses 
Motor misses 
Motor misses 
Motor misses 
Motor misses 
Motor misses 
Motor misses 
Motor misses 
Motor misses 
Motor heats 
Motor heats 
Motor heats 

Motor heats 
Motor heats 
Motor heats 
Motor heats 
Motor heats 
Motor heats 

Motor back-fires 
Motor back-fires 
Motor back-fires 
Motor fails to start 
Motor fails to start 
Motor fails to start 
Motor fails to start 
Motor fails to start 

Motor fails to start 
Motor fails to start 


Motor fails to start 

Motor fails to start 

Motor fails to start 

Motor fails to start 

Motor fails to start 

Motor fails to start 
Motor fails to start 
Motor fails to start 
Motor fails to start 
Motor fails to start 
Motor misses 
Motor misses 
Motor misses 
Motor misses 

Motor vibrates 


Worn piston rings 
Pitted valve seats 
Loose locknut, tappets 
Gas. mixture too heavy 
Gas. mixture too thin 
Contact points worn 
Loose cable connections 
Cracked piston head 
Cracked water jacket 
Poor circulation 
Insufficient lubrication 
Excessive carbon deposit 

Cracked piston ring 
Scored cylinder wall 
Tight main bearings 
Heavy gas mixture 
Cylinders missing 
Worn distributor contact 
spring 

Lean mixture 
Valve open 
Ignition off time 
Lack of gasoline 
Vacuum in fuel tank 
Lack of current 
Short circuit 
Discharged battery 

Lack of fuel 
Lack of fuel 


Lack of fuel 

Ignition fouled 

Breaker points stuck 

Plugs improperly set 

Oil on points 

Cracked porcelain 
Open valves 
Valves stuck 
Weak valve springs 
Open circuit 
Defective spark plug 
Disconnected wires 
Dirty plugs 
Poor compression 

Loose frame connection 


New oversize rings 
Grind in valve seats 
Adjust tappets 
Adjust carburetor 
Adjust carburetor 
Adjust points 
Connect to terminal posts 
Replace piston 
Weld, rebore cylinder 
Flush out radiator 
Clean oiling system 
See chapter on Carbon 
Removing 
Replace rings 
Rebore cylinder 
Lubricate plentifully 
Adjust carburetor 
See Motor Misses 
Replace spring on block 

Adjust carburetor 
Reseat valve, adj. tappet 
See ignition systems 
Fill tank 

Open air hole in cap 
Close circuit 
Tape conductor at point 
Test with hydrometer; 

have recharged 
Clean carburetor 
Clean screen at fuel en¬ 
trance to vacuum sys¬ 
tem 

Clean pipe from vacuum 
system to carburetor 
Clean corrosion from ter¬ 
minals 

Redress lightly with fin¬ 
ger nail file 

Close points to thickness 
of a dime 

Clean plugs and screw 
down tightly 
New plug 

Grind or reset valves 
Polish stems 
Replace springs 
Close switch 
Replace 

Connect up tightly 
Clean 

Replace gasket 
New piston rings 
Draw bolts down 


264 











TROUBLE HINTS 


265 


TROUBLE 


Motor vibrates 
Motor vibrates 
Motor vibrates 
Motor kicks 
Motor kicks 

Motor knock head 
Motor knock head 
Motor knock head 
Motor knock base 
Motor knock base 
Motor rumble 
Motor rumble 
Motor tipping 

Motor tapping 
Motor compression 
poor 

Motor compression 
poor 

Motor compression 
poor 

Motor compression 
poor 

Motor compression 
poor 

Motor compression 
poor 

Motor compression 
poor 

Universal joint noise 
Universal joint noise 

Universal joint slap 

Universal joint slap 
Differential noise 

Differential click 
Differential knock 
Differential growl 
(steady) 

Differential growl 
(uneven) 
Differential growl 
(uneven) 
Differential growl 
(uneven) 

Brakes fail to release 

Brakes fail to release 
Brakes fail to release 
Brake clatter 
Brake clatter 
Brake clatter 
Brake squeak 
Brake squeak 
Brakes fail to grip 

Brakes fail to grip 
Brakes fail to grip 


TROUBLES ( continued ) 


CAUSE 


Pistons sticking 
Pistons weight uneven 
Defective spark plug 
Preignition 

Carbon, combustion cham¬ 
ber 

Wrist pin bearing loose 
Loose connecting rod 
Yalve slap 
Connecting rod loose 
Main bearing loose 
Flywheel loose 
Fan bearing loose 
Fan blade strikes radia 
tor 

Tappet worn 
Thread stretch 

Gasket burned or blown 

Yalve seat pitted 

Yalve guide worn 

Yalve astern warped 

Piston rings lined up 

Cylinder wall scored 

Loose sleeve connection 
Insufficient lubrication 

Worn bushings 

Worn trunion 
Dry 

Chipped gear 

Broken out tooth 

Ring gear mesh too deep 


Ring gear mesh too 
loosely 

Axle shaft sprung 

Loose bearing retainer 

Rusted clevis joints 

Broken coil spring 
Stretched coil spring 
Loose adjustment 
Worn lining 
Loose release spring 
Dry lining 
Burned lining 
Lining worn down to 
rivet heads 
Overly lubricated 
Lining worn slick 


REMEDY 


Increase lubrication 
Balance evenly 
Clean, replace plug 
Time ignition system 
Scrape out, burn out 

Give pin ^4 turn 
Tighten upper bearing 
Adjust tappet 
Adjust remove shim 
Adjust remove shim 
Adjust reseat 
Adjust grease 
Adjust bend blade 

Adjust tighten lock nut 
Tighten head bolts 

Replace, new gasket 

Grind, reset valve 

Replace bushing 

New valve 

Distribute openings 

Oversize rings; rebore 

Tighten flange bolts 
Remove boot and pack 
with grease 

Turn bushings end for 
end 

New bushings 
Fill with graphite grease 
or 600 W 
Replace 
Replace 

Back up trifle on adjust¬ 
ment 

Set up adjustment 
Retrue, replace 
Tighten nuts 

Lubricate with heavy 
grease 
Replace 
Replace 
Adjust 

Reline the outer band 
Adjust 

Four or five drops of oil 
Replace 

Replace 

Wash with kerosene 
Wash with kerosene and 
roughen with file 














266 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


TROUBLES ( continued) 


TROUBLE 

CAUSE 

REMEDY 

Brakes fail to grip 

Lining burned hard 

Replace 

Brakes fail to grip 

Stretched rivets 

Draw down 

Brake rod rattle 

Worn clevis pin 

Replace 

Brake rod rattle 

Spread clevis yoke 

Drive ends together 

Brake rod rattle 

Loose lock-nut behind 
clevis 

Tighten down 

Brake rod rattle 

Brake rods strike each 
other 

Tape one rod at contact 
point 

Brake rod rattle 

Dry connections 

Lubricate with small 

lump of grease 

Torque rod rattle 

Loose connections 

Adjust 

Torque rod rattle 

Loose coil spring 

Adjust 

Emergency brake 

Loose joint bearing 

Replace bushing 

lever rattle 



Emergency brake 

Worn plunger spring 

Replace 

lever rattle 



Gear shift lever rattle 

Worn ball socket 

Lubricate with heavy 

grease 

Gear shift lever rattle 

Worn ball 

Dent in socket with 
punch 

Gear shift lever rattle 

Worn alignment spring 
blades 

Replace 

Gear shift lever rattle 

Worn bearing 

Place thin washer at end 
of joint 

Steering wheel play 

Open mesh 

Set up sector 

Steering wheel play 

Loose bearing 

Turn down cone 

Steering wheel play 

Worn gear tooth 

Take up on eccentric 
bushing 

Steering wheel play 

Loose drag link sockets 

Turn in end plug 

Steering wheel stiff- 

Dry 

Pack with grease 

ness 

Poor circulation 


Radiator heats 

Flush radiator 

Radiator heats 

Jammed tubes 

Remove jam and solder 
in new piece tube 

Radiator heats 

Sediment in bottom tank 

Flush out with soda solu¬ 
tion 

Radiator heats 

Stopped up overflow 

Run wire through 

Radiator freezes 

Too much radiation 

Cover bottom half of ra¬ 
diator with cardboard 

Radiator freezes 

Jammed tubes 

Cut out section; solder 
in new piece 

Radiator freezes 

Sediment in bottom tank 

Flush out with soda solu¬ 
tion 

Vacuum tank spouts 
gas 

Dirt on vacuum valve 
seat 

Clean valve 

Vacuum tank over¬ 
flows 

Dirt on vacuum valve 
seat 

Clean valve 

Vacuum tank fails 

Suction pipe from mani¬ 
fold stopped up 

Clean pipe 

Vacuum tank fails 

Vacuum valve stuck 

Clean valve 

Vacuum tank fails 

Entrance screen stopped 
up 

Remove fuel line and 
clean screen 

Vacuum tank fails 

Loose connection at man¬ 
ifold 

Tighten joint 

Vacuum tank fails 

Plugged fuel line 

Run wire through 

Carburetor wheeze 

Choke valve out too far 
on dash 

Push in after starting 

Carburetor wheeze 

Choke valve wire too 
short 

Lengthen and adjust 












TROUBLE HINTS 


267 


TROUBLE 


Carburetor wheeze 

Carburetor chokes 
Carburetor chokes 
Carburetor chokes 
Carburetor chokes 
Carburetor snaps 
Carburetor snaps 

Carburetor snaps 
Carburetor snaps 
Carburetor overflows 
Carburetor overflows 
Carburetor overflows 

Carburetor backfires 

Carburetor backfires 
Carburetor backfires 
Magneto roar 

Magneto click 

Magneto fires uneven 

Magneto fires uneven 
Magneto fires uneven 
Magneto fires uneven 

Magneto fires uneven 
Magneto fires uneven 

Magneto fires uneven 
Distributor arm 
wabbles 

Distributor fails 

Distributor fails 

Distributor fails 

Distributor fails 
Distributor fails 
Distributor fails 

Distributor fails 
Distributor fails 

Distributor fails 


Starting motor fails 
Starting motor fails 

Starting motor fails 

Starting motor fails 


Starting motor fails 
Starting motor fails 
Generator fails to 
charge 


TROUBLES ( continued) 


CAUSE 


Butterfly loose on air 
valve pivot 
Dirty valve 
Sediment in bowl 
Heavy mixture 
Water in gas 
Thin mixture 
Water in gas 

Dirt in fuel line 
Dirt under needle valve 
Dirt on needle valve seat 
Cork float (water-logged) 
Metal float punctured 

Worn intake valve bush¬ 
ing 

Defective spark plug 
Pitted valve seat 
Armature shaft bearings 
dry 

Dry bearing 

Breaker points out of ad¬ 
justment. 

Open safety spark gap 
Condensor short circuited 
Distributor segments 
worn 

Distributor brush worn 
Distributor insulation 
cracked 

Coil short circuited 
Worn center bushing 

Spring blade broken in 
head 

Worn contact point in 
head 

Oil on contact block 
blade 

Contact points welded 

Loose on shaft 

Coil shorted from damp- 

• ness 

Punctured condensor 
Secondary wire short 
circuited 

Secondary wire discon¬ 
nected in switch 

Corroded terminals 
Brush loose 

Terminal from battery 
short circuited to frame 
Starting switch short cir¬ 
cuited 

Bennidict spring broken 
Battery discharged 
Disconnected 


REMEDY 


Adjust and tighten 

Grind needle valves 
Clean out bowl 
Open air valve slightly 
Clean out bowl 
Cut down air 
Strain gas through cham¬ 
ois 

Run wire through 
Remove; clean seat 
Remove; clean seat 
Dry in sun and shellac 
Punch hole opposite leak, 
blow out, solder both 
Replace bushing 

Replace 

Reseat 

Two drops of light oil 
in bearing well 
Two drops of light oil 
in bearing well 
Adjust points 

Adjust gap to Vi q" 

Take to service station 
Take to service station 

Take to service station 
Take to service station 

Take to service station 
Replace bushing 

Replace blade 

Cut down insulation 

Clean with kerosene 

File smooth, adjust 
Reset and retime 
Dry out thoroughly 

Replace 

Replace or tape 

Connect to proper ter¬ 
minal 

Clean and grease 
Tighten and adjust to 
even contact 
Clean and tape 

Cut off end of wire, make 
new connection 

Replace 

Recharge battery 
Replace heavy wire 

















268 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


TROUBLES ( continued) 


TROUBLE 

CAUSE 

REMEDY 

Generator fails to 
charge 

Short circuit in cut-out 
switch 

Make new connection 

Generator fails to 

Brush out of contact 

Adjust contact 

charge 

Dry bearings 


Generator noise 

Lubricate with light oil 

Battery discharges 

Plate short circuited 

Take to service station 

too quickly 

Leaky cell 


Battery discharges 

Take to service station 

too quickly 



Battery discharges 

Weak solution 

Take to service station 

too quickly 



Battery discharges 

Deteriorated plates 

Take to service station 

too quickly 


Battery discharges 
too quickly 

Dry plates 

Cover plates with dis¬ 
tilled water 

Battery overcharges 

Insufficient use of cur¬ 
rent 

Burn lights and use 
starter frequently 

Battery heats 

Overcharging 

Burn lights and use 
starter frequently 

Horn fails 

Wire short circuited 

Replace or tape 

Horn fails 

Brush making poor con¬ 
tact 

Adjust brush evenly 

Horn fails 

Brush making heavy con¬ 
tact 

Drum too tightly adjust¬ 
ed 

Body loose on frame 

Adjust brush lightly 

Horn fails 

Adjust through funnel 

Squeaks 

Tighten four retainer 
bolts 

Squeaks 

Dry springs 

Lubricate with graphite 

Squeaks 

Fuel tank loose 

grease 

Tighten bands 

Squeaks 

Radiator loose 

Tighten studs 

Squeaks 

Drip pan loose 

Compress coil springs 

Squeaks 

Fender irons loose 

Tighten bolts 

Squeaks 

Upper steering shaft 
bearing dry 

Pack with heavy grease 

Rattles 

Loose spring alignment 
clamp 

Bush and tighten 

Rattles 

Spread rod clevis open 

Draw up ends and grease 

Rattles 

Demountable rim lugs 
loose 

Draw up or replace 

Rattles 

Door hinge screws loose 

Draw up 

Rattles 

Door lock worn 

Bush slot 

Lights jar out 

Wires short circuited 

Tape worn insulation 

Lights jar out 

Weak plunger spring in 
contact plug 

Stretch spring 

Lights fail 

Poor contact 

Remove wire and tape 
insulation 

Lights fail 

Poor contact 

Remove plugs and adjust 

Lights dim 

Globes carboned 

firmly in sockets 
Replace 

Lights burn with 
black spot in center 

Globe out of adjustment 

Turn back into socket 
firmly 











APPENDIX 


I 

FORD—MODEL—T 

THE CAR, ITS OPERATION, AND CARE 

Given in Questions and Answers—This Supplement also 
Covers the 1-Ton Truck 

Q. What should be done before starting the car? 

A. Before trying to start the car fill the radiator (by re¬ 
moving the cap at the top) with clean fresh water. If per¬ 
fectly clean water cannot be obtained, it is advisable to 
strain it through muslin or other similar material to prevent 
foreign matter from getting in and obstructing the small 
tubes of the radiator. The system will hold approximately 
three gallons of water. It is important that the car should 
not be run under its own power unless the water circulating 
system has been filled. Pour in the water until you are sure 
that both radiator and cylinder water jackets are full. The 
water will run out of the overflow pipe onto the ground 
when the entire water system has been properly filled. Dur¬ 
ing the first few days that a new car is being driven it is a 
good plan to examine the radiator frequently and see that it 
is kept well filled. The water supply should be replenished 
as often as it is found necessary to do so. Soft rain water, 
when it is to be had in a clean state, is superior to hard 
water, which may contain alkalies and other salts which tend 
to deposit sediment and clog the radiator. 

Q. What about gasoline? 

A. The ten gallon gasoline tank should be filled nearly 
full and the supply should never be allowed to get low. 
Strain the gas through chamois skin to prevent water and 

269 


270 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


other foreign matter from getting into the tank. Dirt or 
water in the gasoline is sure to cause trouble. When filling 
the tank be sure that there are no naked flames within sev¬ 
eral feet, as the vapor is extremely volatile and travels 
rapidly. Always be careful about lighting matches near where 
gasoline has been spilled, as the air within a radius of sev¬ 
eral feet is permeated with the highly explosive vapor. The 
small vent hole in the gasoline tank cap should not be allowed 
to get plugged up, as this would prevent proper flow of 
gasoline to the carburetor. The gasoline tank may be 
drained by opening the pet cock in the sediment bulb at the 
bottom of the tank. 

Q. How about the oiling system*? 

A. Upon receipt of the car see that a supply of medium 

light high-grade gas engine oil is poured into the crank case 

through the breather pipe at the front of the engine (a metal 
cap covers it). Down under the car in the flywheel casing 
(the reservoir which holds the oil) you will find two pet 
cocks. Pour oil in slowly until it runs out of the upper 

cock. Leave the cock open until it stops running, then close 

it. After the engine has become thoroughly warmed up, the 
best results will be obtained by carrying the oil at a level 
midway between the two cocks, but under no circumstances 
should it be allowed to get below the lower cock. All other 
parts of the car are properly oiled when it leaves the factory. 
However, it will be well to see that all grease cups are filled 
and that oil is supplied to the necessary parts. (See chapter 
on Lubrication.) 

Q. How are spark and throttle levers used? 

A. Under the steering wheel are two small levers. The 
right hand (throttle) lever controls the amount of mixture 
(gasoline and air) which goes into the engine. When the 
engine is in operation, the farther the lever is moved down¬ 
ward toward the driver (referred to as “ opening the 
throttle”) the faster the engine runs and the greater the 
power furnished. The left hand lever controls the spark 
which ignites the gas in the cylinders of the ’engine. The 


THE CAR, ITS OPERATION, AND CARE 271 


advancing of this lever “ advances the spark,” and it should 
be moved down notch by notch until the motor seems to reach 
its maximum speed. If the lever is advanced beyond this 
point a dull knock will be heard in the engine. (See chapter 
on Ignition.) 

Q. Where should these levers be when the engine is ready 
to crank? 

A. The spark lever should usually be put in about the 
third or fourth notch of the quadrant (the notched half 
circle on which the levers operate). The throttle should 
usually be opened five or six notches. A little experience 
will soon teach you where these levers should be placed for 
proper starting. Care should be taken not to advance the 
spark lever too far as the engine may u back-kick.” 

Q. What else is necessary before cranking the engine? 

A. First, see that the hand lever that comes up through 
the floor of the car at the left of the driver, is pulled back 
as far as it will go. The lever in this position holds the 
clutch in neutral and engages the hub brake, thus preventing 
the car from moving forward when the engine is started. 
Second, after inserting the switch key in the switch on the 
coil box, throw the switch lever as far to the left as it will 
go, to the point marked “ magneto.” This switch connects the 
magneto to the engine. The engine cannot be started until 
it is on; and the throwing off of the switch stops the engine. 
The next step is to crank the engine. 

Q. How is the engine cranked? 

A. By the lifting of the starting crank at the front of 
the car. Take hold of the handle and push it toward the 
car until you feel the crank ratchets engage, then lift upward 
with a quick swing. With a little experience this operation 
will become an easy matter. Do not as a usual thing crank 
downward against the compression, for then an early explo¬ 
sion may drive the handle vigorously backward. This does 
not mean, however, that it is advisable, when the car is hard 
to' start, to occasionally “ spin ” the engine with the start¬ 
ing handle but be sure that the spark is retarded when spin- 


272 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


ning or cranking the engine against compression, otherwise 
a sudden back-fire may injure the arm of the operator. When 
the engine is cool it is advisable to prime the carburetor by 
pulling on the small wire at the lower left-hand side of the 
radiator while giving the engine two or three quarter turns 
with the starting handle. 

Q. How is the engine best started in cold weather 1 ? 

A. As gasoline does not vaporize readily in cold weather, 
it is naturally more difficult to start the motor under such 
conditions. The usual method of starting the engine when 
cold is to turn the carburetor dash adjustment one-quarter 
turn to the left in order to allow a richer mixture of gas¬ 
oline to be drawn into the cylinders. Then hold out the 
priming rod which projects through the radiator while you 
turn the crank from six to eight quarter turns in quick succes¬ 
sion. Another method of starting a cold troublesome motor 
is as follows: Before you throw on the magneto switch, (1) 
close throttle lever. (2) Hold out the priming rod while 
you crank several quick turns, then let go of the priming 
rod, being careful that it goes back all the way. (3) Place 
spark lever in about the third notch and advance throttle 
lever several notches. (4) Throw on switch being sure to get 
it on the side marked “ magneto.” (5) Give crank one or 
two turns and the motor should start. After starting the 
motor it is advisable to advance the spark eight or ten notches 
on the quadrant and let the motor run until it is thoroughly 
warmed up. 

If you start out with a cold motor you will not have much 
power and are liable to 11 stall.” The advantage of turning 
on the switch last, or after priming, is that when you throw 
on the switch and give the crank one-quarter turn you have 
plenty of gas in the cylinders to keep the motor running, 
thereby eliminating the trouble of the motor starting and 
stopping. After motor is warmed up turn carburetor ad¬ 
justment back one-quarter turn. 

Note. Many drivers make a practice of stopping their en¬ 
gine by walking around in front of the car and pulling out 


THE CAR, ITS OPERATION, AND CARE 273 


on the priming rod which has the effect of shutting off the 
air suction and filling the cylinders full of a very rich gaso¬ 
line vapor. This should not be done unless the car is going 
to stand over night or long enough to cool off. If the motor 
is stopped in this way and then started when hot, starting is 
apt to be difficult on account of the surplus gasoline in the 
carburetor. 

Q. How do the foot pedals operate? 

A. The first one toward the left operates the clutch, and 
by it the car is started and its operations largely controlled. 
When pressed forward the clutch pedal engages the low speed 
gear. When halfway forward the gears are in neutral (i. e., 
disconnected from the driving mechanism of the rear wheels), 
and, with the hand lever thrown forward the releasing of the 
pedal engages the high-speed clutch. The right hand pedal 
operates the transmission brake. 

Q. What function does the hand lever perform? 

A. Its chief purpose is to hold the clutch in neutral posi¬ 
tion. If it were not for this lever the driver would have to 
stop the engine whenever he left the driver’s seat. He would 
also be unable to crank the engine without the car starting 
forward with the first explosion. When pulled back as far 
as it will go, the hand lever acts as an emergency lever on the 
rear wheels, by expanding the brake shoes in the rear wheel 
drums. Therefore the hand lever should be back as far as 
it will go when cranking the engine or when the car is at 
rest. It should be only in a vertical position, and not far 
enough backward to act as a brake on the rear wheels when 
the car is to be reversed. When the car is operating in 
high or low speed the hand lever should be all the way for¬ 
ward. 

Q. How is the car started? 

A. Slightly accelerate the engine by opening the throttle. 
Place the foot on the clutch pedal, and thereby hold the 
gears in a neutral position while throwing the hand lever 
forward. Then to start the car in motion, press the pedal 
forward into low speed and when under sufficient headway 


274 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


(20 to 30 feet), allow the pedal to drop back slowly into high 
speed, at the same time partially closing the throttle which 
will allow the engine to pick up its load easily. With a little 
practice the change of speeds will be easily accomplished, and 
without any appreciable effect on the smooth running of the 
machine. 

Q. How is the car stopped*? 

A. Partially close the throttle. Release the high speed by 
pressing the clutch pedal forward into neutral. Apply the 
foot brake slowly but firmly until the car comes to a dead 
stop. Do not remove the foot from the clutch pedal with¬ 
out first pulling the hand lever back -to neutral position, or 
the engine will stall. To stop the motor, open the throttle 
a trifle to accelerate the motor and then throw off the switch. 
The engine will then stop with the cylinders full of gas, which 
will naturally facilitate starting. 

Endeavor to so familiarize yourself with the operation of 
the car that to disengage the clutch and apply the brake be¬ 
comes practically automatic, the natural thing to do in case of 
emergency. 

Q. How is the car'reversed ? 

A. It must be brought to a dead stop. With the engine 
running, disengage the clutch with the hand lever and press 
the reverse pedal forward with the left foot, the right foot 
being free to use on the brake pedal if needed. Do not bring 
the hand lever back too far or you will set the brakes on the 
rear wheels. Experienced drivers ordinarily reverse the car 
by simply holding the clutch pedal in neutral with the left 
foot, and operating the reverse pedal with the right. 

Q. How is the spark controlled 1 ? 

A. By the left hand lever under the steering wheel. Good 
operators drive with the spark lever advanced just as far 
as the engine will permit. But if the spark is advanced too 
far as dull knock will be heard in the motor, due to the fact 
that the explosion occurs before the piston in the engine has 
completed its compression stroke. The best results are ob¬ 
tained when the spark occurs just at the time that piston 


THE CAE, ITS OPERATION, AND CARE 


275 


beaches its highest point of travel, the gas being then at its 
highest point of compression. The spark should only be re¬ 
tarded when the engine slows down on a heavy road or steep 
grade, but care should be exercised not to retard the spark too 
far, for when the spark is u late ” instead of getting a power¬ 
ful explosion, a slow burning of gas with excessive heat will 
result. Learn to operate the spark as the occasion demands. 
The greatest economy in gasoline consumption is obtained by 
driving with the spark advanced sufficiently to obtain the 
maximum speed. 

Q. How is speed of car controlled? 

A. The different speeds required to meet road condi¬ 
tions are obtained by opening or closing the throttle. Prac¬ 
tically all the running speeds needed for ordinary travel are 
obtained on high gear, and it is seldom necessary to use the 
low gear except to give the car momentum in starting. The 
speed of the car may be temporarily slackened in driving 
through crowded traffic, turning corners, etc., by “ slipping 
the clutch,” i. e., pressing the clutch pedal forward into neu¬ 
tral. 

Q. Is it advisable for owners to make their own adjust¬ 
ments? 

A. The Ford is the simplest of all cars. Most of the 
ordinary adjustments an owner will soon learn to make for 
himself. But we must strongly recommend that when it be¬ 
comes necessary to employ the services of a mechanic, the 
car be taken to a Ford mechanic — one of our own repre¬ 
sentatives who thoroughly understands the car — and who will 
have no motive for running up useless repair bills. The en¬ 
tire Ford organization is interested in keeping every indivi¬ 
dual Ford car in constant operation, at the lowest possible 
cost. We have known of much damage clone to many cars by 
unskilled repair men. 

Q. What attention does the ear need? 

A. Remember that a new machine requires more careful at¬ 
tention during the first few days it is being driven than after 
the parts have become thoroughly “ worked in.” The car 


276 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


which is driven slowly and carefully when new usually gives 
the most satisfactory service in the end. Never start out with 
your car until you are sure that it has plenty of oil and 
water. Frequently inspect the running gear. See that no un¬ 
necessary play exists in either front or rear wheels, and that 
all bolts and nuts are tight. Make a practice of taking care 
of every repair or adjustment as soon as its necessity is dis¬ 
covered. This attention requires but little time and may 
avoid delay or possible accident on the road. We aim to de¬ 
liver the car in proper mechanical adjustment. Afterwards 
it is plainly the duty of the driver to keep it in that condi¬ 
tion. 


II 


THE FORD ENGINE 

Q. What is the principle of the gasoline driven engine? 

A. Gasoline when mixed with air and compressed is highly 
explosive. An explosion is a violent expansion caused by in¬ 
stantaneous combustion of confined gases. In the gasoline 
engine the mixture is drawn into the cylinder, where it is com¬ 
pressed by an advancing piston and then exploded by an 
electric spark, which sends the piston violently downward, 
and through the connecting rod imparts a rotary motion to the 
crank shaft. (See cut No. 147.) 

Q. What are functions of the pistons? 

A. On the downward stroke the suction of the piston 
draws the fresh gas from the carburetor, through the inlet 
pipe and valve, into the cylinder. The upward movement of 
the piston compresses the gas into a very small space, be¬ 
tween the top of the piston and the depression in the cylinder 
head, known as the “combustion chamber.” (The compressed 
gases inert a pressure of approximately 60 pounds to the 
square inch.) At this point the electric spark, generated by 
the magneto, explodes the gas-driving piston downward, thus 
producing the power which turns the crank shaft. On the 
next stroke upward the piston drives the exploded gas out 
through the exhaust valve and pipe to the muffler. The ac¬ 
companying cut shows clearly the relative positions of the 
pistons and valves during the different strokes. 

Q. How is the connecting rod removed? 

A. It is a vanadium steel rod connecting piston and crank 
shaft. Should the babbitt bearing become worn, or burned 
out through lack of oil, a knocking in the engine will result, 
in which case the entire connecting rod should be replaced. 

277 


278 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 



o . 

«!?'“ -B §S*= 

“ 1®‘-g c £ mcL 

£ -2; 3 tt» 10 (U CT 

> - ~ § .9-^i i-g.s 

£*-| 


CL U D 

clq: 

0 c- 

iO-C u 

t_ O yZ 
■«—> 

3 O 


Ur>i2ar^c 

•C - oCO^- 

tn’S^'5'5 

r- "3 v ■£ "t; 
^66 

dJJ 

00 


00 


























































































































































THE FORD ENGINE 


279 


To make this replacement, (1) drain oil from crank case; (2) 
take off cylinder head; (3) remove detachable plate on bottom 
of crank case; (4) disconnect connecting rod from crank 
shaft; (5) take piston and rod out through top of cylinder. 

Q. What is the valve arrangements 

A. One intake and one exhaust valve are located in each 
cylinder. The former admits the fresh gas drawn from the 
carburetor through the inlet pipe, the latter permits the ex- 
1 ploded gas to be driven out through the exhaust pipe. The 
L valves are alternately opened and closed (see Fig. 148) by 



the cams on the cam shaft striking against push rods which in 
turn lift the valves from their seats. 

Q. What about valve timing? 

A. In timing the engine the points of opening and closing 
of the valves are, of course, what should be considered. As 
the valves are properly timed at the factory when the engine 
is built, the necessity for retiming would occur only when 
such parts as the cam shaft, time gears, or valves were re¬ 
moved in overhauling the engine. In fitting the large time 
gear to the cam shaft it is important to see that the first 
cam points in a direction opposite to the zero mark (see Fig. 





























280 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


148). The time gears must also mesh so that the tooth marked 
(0) on the small time gear will come between the two teeth 
on the large gear at the zero point. The time gears now being 
properly set, the exhaust valve on No. 1 cylinder is open 
and the intake valve closed, the other valves being in the 
position indicated in cut No. 148. The opening and closing of 
the valves are as follows: The exhaust valve opens when the 
piston reaches 5/16" of bottom center, the distance from the 
top of the piston head to the top of the cylinder casting 
measuring 3%". The exhaust valve will close on top center, 
the piston being 5/16" above the cylinder casting. The intake 
valve opens 1/1G" after the top center and closes 9/16" after 
bottom center, the distance from the top of the piston to the 
top of the cylinder casting measuring 3V&". The clearance be¬ 
tween the push rod and the valve stem should never be greater 
than 1/32" nor less than 1/64". The correct clearance is 
naturally halfway between these two measurements. The gap 
should be measured when the push rod is on the heel of the 
cam. 

Q. What about the care of the valves? 

A. They seldom get out of order, but they do get dirty as 
a result of carbon collecting on the valve seats. These carbon 
deposits, by preventing proper closing of the valves, permit 
the gases under compression to escape, resulting in loss of 
power and uneven running of the motor. If, when turning 
the engine over slowly, there is lack of resistance in one or 
more cylinders, it is probable that the valves need regrinding. 
As the “life” of the engine depends largely upon the proper 
seating of the valves, it is necessary that they be ground oc¬ 
casionally. 

Q. How are valves removed for grinding? 

A. (1) Draining radiator; (2) remove cylinder head; (3) 
remove the two valve covers on the right side of the engine; 
(4) raise the valve spring with lifting tool and pull out the 
little pin under the valve seat. The valve may then be lifted 
out by the head, preparatory to grinding. 

Q. How are valves ground? 


THE FORD ENGINE 


281 


A. For this work use a good grinding paste of ground 
glass and oil procurable from auto supply houses. A con¬ 
venient way is to put a small amount in a suitable dish, ad¬ 
ding a spoonful or two of kerosene and a few drops of lubri¬ 
cating oil to make a thin paste. Place the mixture spar¬ 
ingly on the bevel face of the valve. Put the valve in po¬ 
sition on the valve seat, and rotate it back and forth (about a 
quarter turn) a few times with a Ford grinding tool. Then 
lift slightly from the seat, change the position and continue 
the rotation, and keep on repeating this operation until the 
bearing surface is bright and smooth. The valve should not 
be turned through a complete rotation, as this is apt to cause 
scratches running around the entire circumference of the 
valve and seat. When the grinding is completed the valve 
should be removed from the cylinder, thoroughly washed with 
kerosene, and the valve seat wiped out thoroughly. Extreme 
care should be taken that no abrasive substance gets into the 
cylinders or valve guides. This can be avoided if the grind¬ 
ing paste is applied sparingly on the bevel face of the valve. 
If the valve seat is worn badly or smeared, it is best to have it 
reseated with a valve seating tool. This operation requires 
considerable skill, and perhaps had better be done by an ex¬ 
pert mechanic. Care should be exercised against making too 
deep a cut, necessitating the retiming of the valve. 

Q. What should be done when the valves and push rods 
are worn? 

A. When the valves and push rods become worn so as to 
leave too much play between them, thus reducing the lift of 
the valves and diminishing the power of the motor, it is best 
to replace the push rods with new ones. The clearance be¬ 
tween the push rod and the valve stem should never be greater 
than 1/32" nor less than 1/64". If the clearance is greater, 
the valve will open late and close early, resulting in uneven 
running of the motor. If the clearance is less than 1/64" 
there is danger of the valve remaining partially open all the 
time. If replacing the push rod does not give the proper 
clearance, the valve should also be replaced. We do not 


2S2 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


recommend drawing 1 out the valve stem, as the operation re¬ 
quired, and the price of a new part does not warrant the time 
and expense necessary to properly do the work. 

Q. What about valve springs? 

A. When the valves fail to seat themselves properly, there 
is a possibility that the springs may be weak or broken. A 
weak inlet spring would probably not affect the running of the 
engine, but weakness in the exhaust valve spring causes a 
very uneven action, which is difficult to locate. The symptoms 
are a lag in the engine due to the exhaust valve not closing 
instantaneously, and as a result a certain per cent, of the 
charge under compression escapes, greatly diminishing the 
force of the explosion. Weakness in a valve spring can 
usually be detected by the following method: Remove the 
plate which encloses them at the side of the cylinder and 
insert a screw driver between the coils of the spring while 
the engine is running. If the extra tension thus produced 
causes the engine to pick up speed, the spring is obviously 
weak and should be replaced by a new one. 

Q. What causes “knocking” in the engine? 

A. There are several causes which may be enumerated as 
follows: (1) carbon knock, which is by far the most common, 
resulting from carbonizing of cylinders; (2) knock caused by 
a too advanced spark; (3) connecting rod knock; (4) crank 
shaft main bearing knock; (5) knock due to loose fitting pis¬ 
ton or broken ring; (G) knock caused by piston striking the 
cylinder head gasket. When the engine knocks from any 
cause whatsoever, the matter should be promptly investigated 
by an experienced mechanic and the difficulty corrected. 

Q. How may the different knocks be distinguished? 

A. (1) The carbon knock is a clear hollow sound most 
noticeable in climbing sharp grades, particularly when the en¬ 
gine is heated. It is also indicated by a sharp rap immediately 
on advancing the throttle. (2) Too advanced spark will be in¬ 
dicated by a dull knock in the motor. (3) The connecting 
rod knock sound is like the distant tapping of steel with a 
small hammer, and is readily distinguished when the car is 


THE FORD ENGINE 


283 


allowed to run idly down grade or upon speeding the car 
to twenty-five miles an hour, then suddenly closing the throttle, 
the tapping will be very distinct. (4) The crank shaft main 
bearing knock can be distinguished as a dull thud when the 
car is going up hill. (5) The loose piston knock is heard 
only upon suddenly opening the throttle, when the sound 
produced might be likened to a rattle. The remedies for these 
knocks are treated under their proper divisions. 

Q. How is carbon removed from the combustion chamber? 

A. First, drain the water off by opening the pet cock at the 
bottom of the radiator; then disconnect the wires at the top 
of the motor and also the radiator connection attached to the 
radiator. Remove the 15 cap screws which hold the cylinder 
head in place. Take off the cylinder head and, with a putty 
knife or screw driver, scrape from the cylinder and piston 
heads the carbonized matter, being careful to prevent the 
specks of carbon from getting into the cylinders or bolt 
holes. In replacing the cylinder head gasket turn the motor 
over so that No. 1 and No. 4 pistons are at top center; place 
the gasket in position over the pistons and then put the cyl¬ 
inder head in place. Be sure and draw the cylinder head 
bolts down evenly (i. e., give each bolt a few turns at a time). 
Do not tighten them on one end before drawing them up at the 
other. 

Q. How are spark plugs cleaned? 

A. After removing the plug from the engine the points 
may be cleaned with an old tooth brush dipped in gasoline. 
However, to do the work thoroughly, the plug should be taken 
apart by securing the large hexagon steel shell in a vise and 
loosening the pack nut which holds the porcelain in place. 
The carbon deposits can then be easily removed from the 
porcelain and shell with a small knife. Care should be ex¬ 
ercised not to scrape off the glazed surface of the porcelain, 
otherwise it will be apt to carbonize quickly. The porcelain 
and other parts should be finally washed in gasoline and 
wiped dry with a cloth. 

In assembling the plug care should be taken to see that the 


284 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


pack nut is not tightened too much so as to crack the porce¬ 
lain, and the distance between the sparking points should be 
1/32", about the thickness of a smooth dime. Dirty plugs 
usually result from an excess of oil being carried in the 
crank case, or from using oil of poor quality. 

Q. How is the power plant removed from the car 1 ? 

A. (1) Drain the water out of the radiator and disconnect 
the radiator hose. (2) Disconnect the radiator stay rod which 
holds it to the dash. (3) Take out the two bolts which fasten 
the radiator to the frame and take radiator off. (4) Discon¬ 
nect the dash at the two supporting brackets which rest on the 
frame. (5) Loosen the steering post bracket, fastened to the 
frame, when the dash and steering gear may be removed as 
one assembly, the wires first having been disconnected. (6) 
Take out the bolts holding the front radius rods in the socket 
underneath the crank case. (7) Remove the four bolts at 
the universal joint. (8) Remove pans on either side of cyl¬ 
inder casting and turn off gasoline; disconnect feed pipe from 
carburetor. (9) Disconnect exhaust manifold from exhaust 
pipe by uncovering large brass pack nut. (10) Take out the 
two cap screws which hold the crank case to the front frame. 
(11) Remove the bolts which hold the crank case arms to the 
frame at the side. Then pass a rope through the opening 
between the two middle cylinders and tie in a loose knot. 
Through the rope pass a “2 by 4,” or stout iron pipe about 
ten feet long, and let a man hold each end; let a third man 
take hold of the starting crank handle, when the whole power 
plant can be lifted from the car to the work bench for ad¬ 
justment. 

Q. How are the connecting rod bearings adjusted? 

A. Connecting rod bearings may be adjusted, without tak¬ 
ing out the engine, by the following method: (1) Drain off 
the oil; (2) Remove plate on bottom of crank case, exposing 
connecting rods; (3) Take off the first connecting rod cap, 
and drawfile the ends a very little at a time; (4) Replace cap, 
being careful to see that punch marks correspond, and tighten 
bolts until it fits shaft snugly; (5) Test tightness of bear- 


THE FORD ENGINE 


285 


ing by turning engine over with the starting handle. Experi¬ 
enced mechanics usually determine when the bearing is prop¬ 
erly fitted by lightly tapping each side of the cap with a 
hammer; (6) then loosen the bearing and proceed to fit the 
other bearings in the same manner; (7) after each bearing 
has been properly fitted and tested, then tighten the cap bolts 
and the work is finished. 

Remember that there is a possibility of getting the bear¬ 
ings too tight, and under such conditions the babbitt is apt to 
cut out quickly, unless precaution is taken to run the motor 
slowly at the start. It is a good plan after adjusting the 
bearings to jack up the rear wheels and let the motor run 
slowly for about two hours (keeping it well supplied with 
water and oil) before taking it out on the road. Whenever 
possible these bearings should be fitted by an expert Ford 
mechanic. 

Worn connecting rods may be returned, prepaid, to the 
nearest agent or branch house for exchange at a price of 75 
cents each to cover the cost of rebabbitting. It is not ad¬ 
visable for any owner or repair shop to attempt the rebabbit¬ 
ting of connecting rods or main bearings, for without a special 
jig in which to form the bearings, satisfactory results will not 
be obtained. The constant tapping of a loose connecting rod 
on the crank shaft will eventually produce crystallization of 
the steel, resulting in broken crank shaft and possibly other 
parts of the engine damaged. 

Q. How are the crank shaft main bearings adjusted 1 ? 

A. Should the stationary bearings in which the crank shaft 
revolves become worn (evidenced by a pounding in the motor) 
and need replacing or adjustment, proceed as follows: (1) 
After the engine has been taken out of the car, remove crank 
case, transmission cover, cylinder head, pistons, connecting 
rods, transmission and magnetic coils. Take off the three bab¬ 
bitted caps and clean the bearing surfaces with gasoline. 
Apply Persian blue or red lead to the crank shaft bearing sur¬ 
faces, which will enable you, in fitting the caps, to determine 
whether a perfect bearing surface is obtained. 


286 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


(2) Place the rear cap in position and tighten it up as much 
as possible without stripping the bolt threads. When the 
bearing has been properly fitted, the crank will permit moving 
with one hand. If the crank shaft cannot be turned with one 
hand, the contact between the bearing surface is evidently too 
close, and the cap requires ohming up, one or two brass lines 
usually being sufficient. In case the crank shaft moves too 
easily with one hand, the shims should be removed and the 
steel surface of the cap filed off, permitting it to set closer. 

(3) After removing the cap, observe whether the blue or 
red “spottings” indicate a full bearing the length of the cap. 
If “spottings” do not show a true bearing, the babbitt should 
be scraped and the cap refitted until the proper results are ob¬ 
tained. 

(4) Lay the rear cap aside and proceed to adjust the 
center bearing in the same manner. Repeat the operation with 
the front bearing, with the other two bearings laid aside. 

(5) When the proper adjustment of each bearing has been 
obtained, clean the babbitt surface carefully and place a 
little lubricating oil on the bearings, also on the crank shaft; 
then draw the caps up as closely as possible, the necessary 
shims, of course, being in place. Do not be afraid of getting 
the cap bolts too tight, as the shim under the cap and the oil 
between the bearing surfaces will prevent the metal being 
drawn into the close contact. If oil is not put on the bear¬ 
ing surfaces, the babbitt is apt to cut out when the motor is 
started up before the oil in the crank case can get into the 
bearing. In replacing the crank case and transmission cover 
on the motor, it is advisable to use a new set of felt gaskets 
to prevent oil leaks. 


Ill 


THE FORD COOLING SYSTEM 

i 

Q. How is the engine cooled? 

A. The heat generated by the constant explosions in the 
engine would soon overheat and ruin the engine were it not 
cooled by some artificial means. The Ford engine is cooled 
by the circulation of water in jackets around the cylinders. 
The heat is extracted from the water by its passage through 
the thin metal tubing of the radiator, to which are attached 
scientifically worked out fins, which assist in the rapid radi¬ 
ation of the heat. The fan, just back of the radiator, sucks 
the air around the tubing through which the air is also driven 
by the forward movement of the car. The belt should be in¬ 
spected frequently and tightened by means of the adjusting 
screw in the fan bracket when necessary. It should not be too 
tight, however. Take up the slack till the fan starts to bind 
when turned by hand. 

Q. How does the water circulate? 

A. The cooling apparatus of the Ford car is known as the 
thermo-syphon system. It acts on the principle that hot 
water seeks a higher level than cold water. Consequently 
when the water reaches a certain heat, approximately 180 
degrees Fahrenheit, circulation commences and the water flows 
from the lower radiator outlet pipe up through the water 
jackets, into the upper radiator water tank, and down through 
the tubes to the lower tank, to repeat the process. 

Q. What are the causes of overheating? 

A. (1) Carbonized cylinders; (2) too much driving on low 
speed; (3) spark retarded too far; (4) poor ignition; (5) 
not enough or poor grade oil; (6) racing motor; (7) clogged 
muffler; (8) improper carburetor adjustment; (9) fan not 

287 


288 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


working properly on account of broken or slipping belt; (10) 
improper circulation of water due to clogged or jammed 
radiator tubes, leaky connections or low water. 

Q. What should be done when the radiator overheats? 

A. Keep the radiator full. Do not get alarmed if it boils 
occasionally, especially in driving through mud and deep sand 
or up long hills in extremely warm weather. Remember 
that the engine develops the greatest efficiency when the 
water is heated nearly to the boiling point. But if there is 
persistent overheating when the motor is working under or¬ 
dinary conditions, find the cause of the trouble and remedy 
\t. The chances are that the difficulty lies in improper driv¬ 
ing or carbonized cylinders. Perhaps twisting the fan blades 
at a greater angle to produce more suction may bring desired 
results. By reference to the proper division of this book each 
of the causes which contribute to an overheated radiator is 
treated and remedies suggested. No trouble can result from 
the filling of an overheated radiator with cold water, provid¬ 
ing the water system is not entirely empty, in which case the 
motor should be allowed to cool before the cold water is in¬ 
troduced. 

Q. How about cleaning the radiator? 

A. The entire circulation system should be flushed out 
occasionally. To do this properly, the radiator inlet and out¬ 
let hose should be disconnected, and the radiator flushed out 
by allowing the water to enter the filler neck at ordinary pres¬ 
sure, from whence it will flow down through the tubes and 
out at the drain cock and hose. The water jackets can be 
flushed out in the same manner. Simply allow the water to 
enter into the cylinder head connections and to flow through 
the water jackets and out at the side inlet connection. 

Q. Will the radiator freeze in winter? 

A. Yes; unless an anti-freezing solution is used in the 
circulating system you are bound to experience trouble. As 
the circulation does not commence until the water becomes 
heated, it is apt to freeze at low temperature before it com¬ 
mences to circulate. In case any of the radiator tubes hap- 


THE FORD COOLING SYSTEM 


289 


pen to be plugged or jammed they are bound to freeze and 
burst open if the driver undertakes to get along without using 
a non-freezing solution. Wood or denatured alcohol can be 
used to good advantage. The following table gives the freez¬ 
ing points of solutions containing different percentages of 
alcohol: 20% solution freezes at 15 degrees above zero. 30% 
solution freezes at S degrees below zero. 50% solution freezes 
at 34 degrees below zero. A solution composed of 60% 
water, 10% glycerine and 30% alcohol is commonly used, its 
freezing point being about 8 degrees below zero. On account 
of evaporation fresh alcohol must be added frequently in order 
to maintain the proper solution. 

Q. How are leaks and jams in the radiator repaired? 

A. A small leak may be temporarily repaired by applying 
brown soap or white lead, but the repair should be made per¬ 
manent with solder as soon as possible. A jammed radiator 
tube is a more serious affair. While the stopping of one 
tube does not seriously interfere with the circulation, it is 
bound to cause trouble sooner or later, and the tube will freeze 
in cold weather. Cut the tube an inch above and below the 
jam and insert a new piece, soldering the connections. If the 
entire radiator is badly jammed or broken it would probably 
be advisable to install a new one. 


IV 


THE GASOLINE SYSTEM 
Q. How does the carburetor work? 

A. The carburetor is of the automatic float feed type, hav¬ 
ing but one adjustment, the gasoline needle valve. The cross- 
section diagram of carburetor (Fig. 149) shows how the 
gasoline enters the carburetor, is vaporized by a current of 
air and passes through the inlet pipe to the engine in the 
form of an explosive mixture. The gasoline, entering the 
bowl of the carburetor, gradually raises the float to a point 



Sediment 


Sediment 
Drain Cock 


Pipe 
Needle Valve 
Lock Screw 

Throttle Lever 
lamp Screw 

Throttle 
Stop Screw 
Throttle Gate 


Cork Float 


Carburetor 
Drain Cock 


Fig. 149. Ford Fuel System 


where the inlet needle is forced upwards into its seat, thus 
cutting off the flow of gasoline. As the gasoline in the bowl 
recedes, the float lowers, allowing the needle to drop from its 
seat and the flow of gasoline is resumed. It is plain to see 
that a constant level of gasoline is maintained in the car¬ 
buretor by the automatic action of float and needle. The 
quantity of gasoline entering into the mixture is governed by 
the needle valve (see following page). The volume of gas 
mixture entering the inlet pipe is controlled by opening and 

290 






























THE GASOLINE SYSTEM 


291 


closing the throttle, according to the speed desired by the 
driver. 

Q. Why is carburetor adjustment placed on dash*? 

A. For the convenience of the driver in adjusting the car¬ 
buretor. After the new car has become thoroughly worked in, 
the driver should observe the angle of the carburetor adjust¬ 
ment rod at which the engine runs most satisfactorily. In cold 
weather it will probably be found necessary to turn the dash ad¬ 
justment one-quarter turn to the left, particularly in starting 
a cold engine. As gasoline vaporizes readily in warm weather, 
the driver will find it economical to reduce the quantity of 
gasoline in the mixture by turning the carburetor adjustment 
to the right as far as possible without reducing the speed. 
This is particularly true when taking long drives where con¬ 
ditions permit a fair rate of speed to be maintained, and ac¬ 
counts for the excellent gasoline mileage obtained by good 
drivers. 

Q. What is meant by a “lean” and a “rich” mixture? 

A. A lean mixture has too much air and not enough gaso¬ 
line. A rich mixture has too much gasoline and not enough 
air. A rich mixture will not only quickly cover the cylinders, 
pistons and valves with soot, but will tend to overheat the 
cylinders, and is likewise wasteful of the fuel. It will often 
choke the engine and cause misfiring at slow speeds, although 
at high speeds the engine will run perfectly. The mixture 
should be kept as lean as possible without the sacrifice of any 
of the power of the motor. A lean mixture will often result 
in backfiring through the carburetor, for the reason that the 
gas burns slowly in the cylinder, and is still burning when the 
inlet valve opens again, which causes the gas in the intake to 
ignite. A rich mixture is shown by heavy, black exhaust 
smoke with a disagreeable smell. Proper mixture will cause 
very little smoke or odor. 

Q. How is the carburetor adjusted? 

A. The usual method of regulating the carburetor is to 
start the motor, advancing the throttle lever to about the sixth 
notch, with the spark retarded to about the fourth notch. The 


292 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


flow of gasoline should now be cut off by screwing the needle 
valve down to the right until the engine begins to misfire. 
Then gradually increase the gasoline feed by opening the 
needle valve until the motor picks up and reaches its highest 
speed and no trace of black smoke comes from the exhaust. 
Whenever it is necessary to turn the adjusting needle down 
more than a quarter turn below its normal position, the lock 
nut on the top of the carburetor at the point through which 
the needle passes should first be loosened, as otherwise it is 
impossible to tell when the needle is turned down in its seat 
too far. Turning the needle down too tightly will result in 
its becoming grooved and the seat enlarged. When those parts 
are damaged it is difficult to maintain proper adjustment of 
the carburetor. Having determined the point where the motor 
runs at its maximum speed, the needle valve lock nut should 
be tightened to prevent the adjustment being disturbed. For 
average running a lean mixture will give better results than a 
rich one. 

Q. Why does water clog the carburetor? 

A. The presence of water in the carburetor or gasoline 
tank, even in small amounts, will prevent easy starting and 
the motor will misfire and stop. As water is heavier than 
gasoline it settles to the bottom of the tank and into the sedi¬ 
ment bulb along with other foreign matters. As it is difficult 
nowadays to get gasoline absolutely free from impurities, 
especially water, it is advisable to frequently drain the sedi¬ 
ment bulb under the gasoline tank. During cold weather the 
water which accumulates in the sediment bulb is likely to freeze 
and prevent the flow of gas through the pipe leading to the 
carburetor. Should anything of this kind happen it is possible 
to open the gasoline line by wrapping a cloth around the sedi¬ 
ment bulb and keeping it saturated with hot water for a. short 
time. Then the water should be drained off. In event of the 
water getting down into the carburetor and freezing, the same 
treatment may be applied. 

Q. What makes the carburetor leak? 

A. The flow of gasoline entering the carburetor through 


THE GASOLINE SYSTEM 


293 


the feed pipe is automatically regulated by the float needle 
raising and lowering in its seat. Should any particle of dirt 
become lodged in the seat, which prevents the needle from 
closing, the gasoline will overflow in the bowl of the car¬ 
buretor and leak out upon the ground. 

Q. What should be done when there is dirt in the car¬ 
buretor ? 

A. The spraying nozzle of the carburetor having a very 
small opening, a minute particle of dirt or other foreign mat¬ 
ter will clog up the orifice. The result is that the motor will 
begin to misfire and slow down as soon as it has attained any 
considerable speed. This is accounted for by the fact that 
at high speeds the increased suction will draw the particles of 
dust, etc., into the nozzle. By opening the valve needle half 
a turn and giving the throttle lever two or three quick pulls 
the dirt or sediment will often be drawn through, when the 
needle may be turned back to its original place. If this does 
not accomplish the purpose, the carburetor should be drained. 

Q. If the engine runs too fast or chokes with throttle re¬ 
tarded, what is to be done? 

A. If the engine runs too fast with throttle fully retarded, 
unscrew the carburetor throttle lever adjusting screw until 
the engine idles at suitable speed. If the motor chokes or 
stops when throttle is fully retarded, the adjusting screw 
should be screwed until it strikes the boss, preventing the 
throttle from closing too far. When proper adjustment has 
been made, tighten lock screw so that adjustment will not be 
disturbed. 

Q. What is the purpose of the hot air pipe? 

A. It takes the hot air from around the exhaust pipe and 
conducts it to the carburetor where the heat facilitates the 
vaporizing of the gasoline. It is usually advisable to remove 
this pipe in the hot season, but it is an absolutely necessary 
feature during cold weather. 

Q. What is the purpose of the cork float? 

A. It automatically controls the flow of gasoline into the 
carburetor. If it floats too low, starting will be difficult; if 


294 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


too high, the carburetor will flood and leak. A cork float 
which has become fuel soaked should be removed and replaced 
by a new one or thoroughly dried and then given a couple of 
coats of shellac varnish to make it waterproof. 

Q. Should priming rod be used in cranking when motor is 
warm? 

A. No. The carburetor does not ordinarily require prim¬ 
ing when the motor is warm, and cranking with the rod pulled 
out is apt to “flood” the engine with an over rich mixture of 
gas, which does not readily explode. This naturally causes 
difficulty in starting. If you should accidentally flood the 
engine, turn the carburetor adjusting needle down (to the 
right) until it seats; then turn the engine over a few times 
with the starting crank in order to exhaust the rich gas. As 
soon as the motor starts, turn back the needle to the left and 
readjust the carburetor. 


V 


THE FORD IGNITION SYSTEM 

Q. What is the purpose of the ignition system? 

A. It furnishes the electric spark which explodes the 
charge in the combustion chamber, thus producing the power 
which runs the engine.. It is important that the charge be 
correctly ignited at the proper time, in order to obtain satis¬ 
factory results in running the car. In the Ford car the 
ignition system is as simple as it is possible for human in¬ 
vention to make it. 

Q. How does the magneto generate the current? 

A. In revolving at the same rate of speed as the motor, 
the magnets on the flywheel passing the stationary coil spools 
create an alternating low tension electric current in coils of 
wire which are wound around spools fastened to the stationary 
part of the magneto, and is carried from these coils to the 
magneto connection (wire) leading to the coil box on the 
dash. 

Q. Should the coil vibrator adjustment be disturbed? 

A. The present style of coil unit is properly adjusted when 
it leaves the factory and this adjustment should not be dis¬ 
turbed unless to install new points or to reduce the gap be¬ 
tween the points which may have increased from wear. When 
adjustments are necessary they should, whenever possible, be 
made by one of the Ford service stations who have special 
equipment for testing and adjusting units and will gladly 
furnish expert service. If the points are pitted they should be 
filed flat with a fine double-faced file and the adjusting thumb 
nut turned down so that with the spring held down the gap be¬ 
tween the points will be a trifle less than 1/32 of an inch. 
Then set the lock nut so that the adjustment cannot be dis- 

295 


296 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


turbed. Do not bend or hammer on the vibrators, as this 
would affect the operation of the cushion spring of the vibrator 
bridge and reduce the efficiency of the unit. 

Q. How is a weak unit detected? 

A. With the vibrators properly adjusted, if any particular 
cylinder fails or seems to develop only a weak action, change 
the position of the unit to determine if the fault is actually 
in the unit. The first symptom of a defective unit is the 
buzzing of the vibrator with no spark at the plug. Remember 
that a loose wire connection, faulty spark plug, or worn com¬ 
mutator may cause irregularity in the running of the motor. 
These are points to be considered before laying the blame on 
the coil. 

Q. How may short circuit in commutator wiring be de¬ 
tected ? 

A. Should the insulation of the primary wires (running 
from coil to commutator) become worn to such an extent that 
the copper wire is exposed, the current will leak out (i. e., 
short circuit) whenever contact with the engine pan or other 
metal parts is made. A steady buzzing of one of the coil 
units will indicate a “short” in the wiring. When driving the 
car the engine will suddenly lag and pound on account of 
the premature explosion. Be careful not to crank the engine 
downward against compression when the car is in this condi¬ 
tion, as the “short” is apt to cause a vigorous kick back. 

Q. Does coil adjustment affect starting ? 

A. Yes. When the vibrators are not properly adjusted 
more current is required to make and break the contact be¬ 
tween the points, and, as a result, at cranking speeds you 

would not get a spark between the spark plug points. Do 

not allow the contact points to become “ragged,” otherwise they 
are apt to stick and cause unnecessary difficulty in starting, 
and when running they are apt to produce an occasional 
“miss” in the engine. 

Q. What is the purpose of the commutator? 

A. The commutator (or timer) determines the instant at 

which the spark plugs must fire. It affects the “make and 


THE FORD IGNITION SYSTEM 


297 


break” in the primary circuit. The grounded wire in the mag¬ 
neto allows the current to flow through the metal parts to the 
metal roller in the commutator. Therefore, when the com¬ 
mutator roller in revolving, touches the four commutator con¬ 
tact points, to each of which is attached a wire connected with 
the coil unit, an electrical circuit is passed through the entire 
system of primary wires. This circuit is only momentary, 
however, as the roller passes over the contact point very rap¬ 
idly and sets up the circuit in each unit as the roller touches 
the contact point connected with that unit. The commutator 
should be kept clean and well oiled at all times. 

Q. What about the spark plug? 

A. One is located at the top of each cylinder and can be 
taken out easily with the spark plug wrench included with 
every car, after the wire connection is removed. The high 
voltage current flows out of the secondary coils in the coil 
box and on reaching the contact points on each spark plug it 
is forced to jump 1/32" gap, thereby forming a spark which 
ignites the gasoline charge in the cylinders. 

The spark plug should be kept clean (i. e., free from car¬ 
bon) and should be replaced if they persist in not working 
properly. There is nothing to be gained by experimenting 
with different makes of plugs. The make of plug with which 
Ford engines are equipped when they leave the factory are 
best adapted to the requirements of our motor, notwithstand¬ 
ing the opinion of various garage men to the contrary. All 
wire connections to spark plugs, coil box and commutator 
should, of course, at all times be kept in perfect contact. 

Q. What are the indications of ignition trouble? 

A. The uneven sputter and bang of the exhaust means that 
one or more cylinders are exploding irregularly or not at all, 
and that the trouble should be promptly located and over¬ 
come. Misfiring, if allowed to continue, will in time injure 
the engine and the entire mechanism. If you would be known 
as a good driver you will be satisfied only with a soft, steady 
purr from the exhaust. If anything goes wrong, stop and fix 
it if possible. Do not wait until you get home. 


298 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


Q. How can one tell which cylinder is missing? 

A. This is done by manipulating the vibrators on the spark 
coils. Open the throttle until the engine is running at a 
good speed and then hold down the two outside vibrators, 
No. 1 and No. 4, with the fingers, so they cannot buzz. This 
cuts out the two corresponding cylinders, No. 1 and No. 4, 
leaving only No. 2 and No. 3 running. If they explode regu¬ 
larly it is obvious the trouble is in either No. 1 or No. 4. 
Relieve No. 4 and hold down No. 2 and No. 3 and also No. 1; 
if No. 4 cylinder explodes evenly it is evident the misfiring is 
in No. 1. In this manner all of the cylinders in turn can be 
tested until the trouble is located. Examine both the spark 
plug and the vibrator of the missing cylinder. 

Q. If the coil and plug are right, what? 

A. The trouble is probably due to an improperly seated 
valve, worn commutator, or short circuit in the commutator 
wiring. Weakness in the valves may be easily determined by 
lifting the starting crank slowly the length of the stroke of 
each cylinder in turn, a strong or weak compression in any 
particular valve being easily detected. It sometimes happens 
that the cylinder head gasket (packing) becomes leaky permit¬ 
ting the gas under compression to escape, a condition that can 
be detected by running a little lubricating oil around the edge 
of the gasket and noticing whether bubbles appear or not. 

Q. Does a worn commutator ever cause misfiring? 

A. Yes. If misfiring occurs when running at high speed, 
inspect the commutator. The surface of the circle around 
which the roller travels should be clean and smooth, so that 
the roller makes a perfect contact at all points. If the roller 
fails to make a good contact on any of the four points, its 
corresponding cylinder will not fire. Clean these surfaces if 
dirty. In case the fiber, contact points, and roller of the com¬ 
mutator are badly worn, the most satisfactory remedy is to 
replace them with new parts. The trouble is probably caused 
by short circuited commutator wires. The spring should be 
strong enough to make a firm contact between the roller points 
if they are worn or dirty. 


THE FORD IGNITION SYSTEM 


299 


Q. How is the commutator removed? 

A. Remove cotter pin from spark rod and detach latter 
from commutator. Loosen the cap screw which goes through 
breather pipe on top of time gear cover. This will release the 
spring which holds the commutator case in place and this part 
can be readily removed. Unscrew lock nut; withdraw steel 
brush cap and drive out the retaining pin. The brush can 
then be removed from the cam shaft. 

In replacing the brush, care must be exercised to see that 
it is reinstated so that the exhaust valve on the first cylinder 
is closed when the brush points upward. This may be ascer¬ 
tained by removing the valve door and observing the opera¬ 
tion of No. 1 valve. 

Q. Does cold weather affect the commutator? 

A. It is a well known fact that in cold weather the best 
grades of lubricating oil are apt to congeal to some extent. 
If this occurs in the commutator it is very apt to prevent the 
roller from making perfect contact with the contact points 
imbedded in the fiber. This, of course, makes difficult start¬ 
ing, as the roller arm spring is not stiff enough to brush 
away the film of oil which naturally forms over the contact 
points. To overcome this, as well as any liability to the con¬ 
tact points to rust, we recommend a mixture of 25% kerosene 
with the commutator lubricating oil, which will thin it suffi¬ 
ciently to prevent congealing, or freezing, as it is commonly 
called. -You have probably noticed in starting your car in 
cold weather that perhaps only one or two cylinders will fire 
for the first minute or so, which indicates that the timer is in 
the condition described above and as a consequence a perfect 
contact is not being made on each of the four terminals. 

Q. How is the magneto removed? 

A. It is necessary to take the power plant out of the car 
in order to remove the magneto. Then remove crank case and 
transmission cover. Take out the four cap screws that hold 
the flywheel to the crank shaft. You will then have access 
to the magnets and entire magneto mechanism. In taking 
out these parts, or any parts of the car, the utmost care should 


300 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


be taken to make sure that the parts are marked in order that 
they may be replaced properly. 

Q. What is to be done when the magneto gets out of or¬ 
der? 

A. A Ford magneto is made of permanent magnets and 
there is very little liklihood of their ever losing their strength 
unless acted upon by some outside force. For instance, the 
attachments of a storage battery to the magneto terminal will 
demagnetize the magnets. If anything like this happens, it is 
not advisable to try to recharge them, but rather install a 
complete set of new magnets. The new magnets will be sent 
from the nearest agent or branch house, and will be placed on 
a board in identically the same manner as they should be 
when installed on the flywheel. Great care should be taken 
in assembling the magnets and lining up the magneto so that 
the faces of the magnets are separated from the surface of 
the coil spool just 1/32 of an inch. To take out the old 
magnets, simply remove the cap screw and bronze screw 
which hold each in place. The magneto is often blamed w T lien 
the trouble is a weak current caused by waste or other for¬ 
eign matter accumulating under the contact spring cover. 
Remove the three screws which hold the binding post in 
place; remove binding post and spring and replace after for¬ 
eign substance has been removed. 


VI 


THE FORD TRANSMISSION 

Q. What is the function of the transmission? 

A. It is that part of the mechanism of an automobile 
which lies between the engine shaft and the propeller shaft 
and by which one is enabled to move at different speeds from 
the other. It is the speed gear of the car. It sends the car 
forward at low and high speeds and by it the car is reversed. 

Q. What is meant by the term “planetary transmission’ 7 ? 

A. One in which the groups of gears always remain in 
mesh and revolve around a main axis. The different sets of 
gears are brought into action by stopping the revolution of 
the parts which support the gears. By means of bands (simi¬ 
lar to brake bands) the rotation of the different parts is 
stopped. The planetary transmission is the simplest and most 
direct means of speed control and is a distinct advantage to 
the Ford car. 

Q. What is the purpose of the clutch? 

A. If the crank shaft of the engine ran without break 
straight through to the differential and through it applied its 
power direct to the rear wheels, the car would start forward 
immediately upon the starting of the engine (were it possible 
to get it started under such conditions). To overcome this 
difficulty the shaft is divided by means of the clutch. 
The part of the shaft to which the running engine is deliver¬ 
ing its power is enabled to take hold of the unmoving part 
gradually and start the car without jolt or jar. The for¬ 
ward part of the shaft is referred to as the crank shaft, the 
rear part as the drive shaft. 

Q. How is the clutch controlled? 

A. By the left pedal at the driver’s feet. If the clutch 

301 


302 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


pedal, when pushed forward into slow speed, has a tendency 
to stick and not to come back readily into high, tighten up 
the slow speed band. Should the machine have an inclination 
to creep forward when cranking, it indicates that the clutch 
lever screw which bears on the clutch lever cam has worn, and 
requires an extra turn to hold the clutch in neutral position. 
When the clutch is released by pulling back the hand lever 
the pedal should move forward the distance of 1%" in pass¬ 
ing from high speed to neutral. See that the hub brake shoe 
and connections are in proper order so that the brake will 
act sufficiently to prevent the car creeping very far ahead. 
Also be sure that the slow speed band does not bind on ac¬ 
count of being adjusted too tight. Do not use too heavy a 
grade of oil in cold weather, as it will have a tendency to 
congeal between the clutch discs and prevent proper action of 
the clutch. 

Q. How is the clutch adjusted? 

A. Remove the plate on the transmission cover under the 
floor boards at the driver’s seat. Take out the cotter key on 
the first clutch finger and give the set screw one-half to one 
complete turn to the right with a screw driver. Do the same 
to the other finger set screw. But be sure to give each the 
same number of turns and do not forget to replace the cotter 
key. And after a considerable period of service the wear in 
the clutch may be taken up by installing another pair of 
clutch discs, rather than by turning the adjusting screw in 
too far. 

Caution. Let us warn you against placing any small tools 
or objects over or in the transmission case without a good wire 
or cord attached to them. It is almost impossible to recover 
them without taking off the transmission cover. 

Q. How are the bands adjusted? 

A. The slow speed bands may be tightened by loosening 
the lock nut at the right side of the transmission cover, and 
turning up the adjusting screw to the right. To tighten the 
brake and reverse bands, remove the transmission case cover 
door and turn the adjusting nuts on the shaft to the right. 



Fig. 150. Ford Transmission Assembly 




















































































































304 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


See that the bands do not drag on the drums when disengaged, 
as they exert a brake effect, and tend to overheat the motor. 
However, the foot brake should be adjusted so that a sudden 
pressure will stop the car immediately, or slide the rear wheels 
in case of emergency. The bands, when worn to such an ex¬ 
tent that they will not take hold properly, should be relined, 
so that they will engage smoothly without causing a jerky 
movement of the car. The lining is inexpensive and may be 
had at any of the eight thousand Ford service stations at small 
cost. 

Q. How are the bands removed? 

A. Take off the door on top of transmission cover. Turn 
the reverse adjustment nut and the brake adjustment nut to 
the extreme ends of the pedal shafts, then remove the slow 
speed adjusting screw. Remove the bolts holding the trans¬ 
mission cover to the crank case and lift off the cover as¬ 
sembly. Slip the band nearest the flywheel over the first of 
the triple gears, then turn the band around so that the open¬ 
ing is downward. The band may now be removed by lifting 
upward. The operation is more easily accomplished if the 
three sets of triple gears are so placed that one set is about 
ten degrees to the right of center at top. Each band is re¬ 
moved by the same operation. It is necessary to shove each 
band forward on to the triple gears as at this point only is 
there sufficient clearance in the crank case to allow the ears 
of the transmission bands to be turned downward. By re¬ 
versing this operation the bands may be installed. After be¬ 
ing placed in their upright position on the drums pass a cord 
around the ears of the three bands, holding them in the center 
so that when putting the transmission cover in place no trouble 
will be experienced in getting the pedal shafts to rest in the 
notches in the band ears. The clutch release ring must be 
placed in the rear groove of the clutch shaft. With the 
cover in place remove the cord which held the bands in place 
while the cover was being installed. 

Q. How is transmission assembled? 

A. Cut No. 150 shows the transmission parts in their rela- 



THE FORD TRANSMISSION 


305 


tive assembling positions and grouped in their different op¬ 
erations of assembling. 

The first operation is the assembling of group No. 2, which 
is as follows: Place the brake drum on table with the hub 
in a vertical position. Place the slow speed plate over the 
hub with the gear uppermost. Then place reverse plate over 
the slow speed plate so that the reverse gear surrounds the 
slow speed gear. Fit the two keys in the hub just above the 
slow speed gear. Put the driven gear in position with the 
teeth downward so that they will come next to the slow speed 
gear. Take the three triple gears and mesh them with the 
driven gear according to the punch marks on the teeth, the 
reverse gear or smallest of the triple gear assembly being 
downward. After making sure that the triple gears are prop¬ 
erly meshed tie them in place by passing a cord around the 
outside of the three gears. Take the flywheel and place it 
on the table with the face downward and the transmission 
shaft in vertical position. Then invert the group which you 
have assembled over the transmission shaft, setting it in po¬ 
sition so that the triple gear pins on the flywheel will pass 
through the triple gears. This will bring the brake drum on 
top in a position to hold the clutch plates, etc. The next 
step is to fit the clutch drum key in the transmission shaft. 
Press the clutch disc drum over the shaft and put the set 
screw in place to hold the drum. Put the large disc over the 
clutch drum, then the small disc, alternating with large and 
small discs until the entire set of discs are in position, ending 
up with a large disc on top. If a small disc is on top it is 
liable to fall over the clutch in changing the speed from 
high to low and as a result you would be unable to change the 
speed back into high. Next put the clutch push rings over 
the clutch drum, and on top of the discs, with the three pins 
projecting upward (see group No. 4, cut No. 149). You will 
note the remaining parts are placed as they will be assembled. 
Next bolt the driving plate in position so that the adjusting 
screws of the clutch fingers will bear against the clutch push 
ring pins. Before proceeding further it would be a good 


306 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


plan to test the transmission by moving the plates with the 
hands. If the transmission is properly assembled the flywheel 
will revolve freely while holding any of the drums stationary. 
The clutch parts may be assembled on the driving plate hub 
as follows: Slip the clutch shift over the hub so that the 
small end rests on the ends of the clutch fingers. Next put 
on the clutch spring, placing the clutch supports inside so that 
the flange will rest on the upper coil of the spring and press 
into place, inserting the pin in the driving plate hub through 
the holes in the side of the spring support. Then turn the 
clutch spring support until the pin fits into the lugs on the 
bottom of the support. The easiest method of compressing 
the spring sufficiently to insert the pin is to loosen the tension 
of the clutch finger by means of the adjusting screws. When 
tightening up the clutch again the spring should be compressed 
to within a space of two or two and one-sixteenth inches to 
insure against the clutch spring slipping. Care should be 
exercised to see that the screws in the fingers are adjusted so 
the spring is compressed evenly all around. 


YII 


THE REAR AXLE ASSEMBLY 

Q. How is the rear axle removed? 

A. Jack up car and remove rear wheels as instructed be¬ 
low. Take out the four bolts connecting the universal ball 
cap to the transmission case and cover. Disconnect brake 
rods. Remove nuts holding spring perches to rear axle hous¬ 
ing flanges. Raise frame at the rear end, and the axle can 
be easily withdrawn. 

Q. How is the universal joint disconnected from the drive 
shaft ? 

A. Remove two plugs from top and bottom of ball casting 
and turn shaft until pin comes opposite hole, drive out pin 
and joint can be pulled or forced away from the shaft and 
out of the housing. 

Q. How are the rear axle and differential disassembled? 

A. With the universal joint disconnected, remove nuts in 
front end of radius rods and the nuts on studs holding drive 
shaft tube to rear axle housing. Remove bolts which hold the 
two halves of differential together. If necessary to disas¬ 
semble differential a very slight mechanical knowledge will 
permit one to immediately discern how to do it once it is 
exposed to view. Care must be exercised to get every pin, 
bolt and key lock back in its correct position when re¬ 
assembling. 

Q. How is the drive shaft pinion removed? 

A. The end of the drive shaft, to which the pinion is at¬ 
tached, is tapered to fit the tapered hole in the pinion, which 
is keyed onto the shaft, and then secured by a cotter pinned 
“castle” nut. Remove the castle nut, and drive the pinion 
off. 


307 


308 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


Q. How are the differential gears removed? 

A. The compensating gears are attached to the inner ends 
of the rear axle shaft. They work upon the spider gears when 
turning a corner, so that the axle shaft revolves independently, 
but when the car is moving in a straight line the spider gears 
and compensating gears and axle shaft move as an integral 
part. If you will examine the rear axle shafts you will notice 
that the gears are keyed on, and held in position by a ring 
which is in two halves and fits in a groove in the rear axle shaft. 


Universal Joint Knuckle (Male) 

Joint housing- 

Joint Coupling Ring —— 

UniversalJointKnuckle (Female) 



W Radius Rad 
Reor Axle Brake Drum 
hub Brahe CamShaft 


Ball Race 

Ball Thr^t CotTal ^ 
Drive Shaft Pinion 
Onving Gear 
Dure Gear Screws 
Lock Wire 


Thrust Washer(5teel) 
Thrust Was her (Babbitt, 
Hub Brake CamShaft Lever Thrust Washer (Steel) 
Radius Rod Bolt and Nut Q ear Case (left) 


Hub Cap 
Cotter Pin 
Castle Nut 
Hub 
hub 
Hub flange 


Roller Bearing Sleeve Rear Axle Shaft 
tsAV Poller Bearing Rear Axle Roller Bearing Sleev« 

.Lt^V\^Axle Housing Cap Rear Axle Roller Bearing* 

\ Axle Roller Bearing Steel Washer Rear Axle Housing (Left) 

Broke Shoe Support Bolt and Nut 

Fig. 151. Ford Rear Axle System 



Pcxflus Rod Castle Nut 
Radios Rod Lock Ni/t 
D.rivt Shalt front Bushing 
Rear Radius Rod 
Drive Shaft Tube 
Drive Shaft 


Drive Shaft 
Orive Shaft Tube 
Boll Bearing 

/ s /Roller Bearing Hens mg 
( /-Roller Bearing' 
//Roller Bearing Sleeve 
//Costle Nut 
//Differential Pinion 
Y ' Differential Spider 

Oifferentiol Gear 
Rear Ajrle Mousing(RTaflft 
Thrust Washer* 


Sear Cose (Right) 
Differential Case Stud 
Grease Plu® 


To remove the compensating gears, force them down on the 
shaft, that is, away from the end to which they are secured, 
drive out the two halves of ring in the grooves in shaft with 
screw driver or chisel, then force the gears off the end of the 
shafts. 

Q. How is the rear axle shaft removed? 

A: Disconnect rear axle as directed above, then unbolt the 
drive shaft assembly where it joins the rear axle housing at 
the differential. Disconnect the two radius rods at the outer 
end of the housing. Take out the bolts which hold the two 



































































THE REAR AXLE ASSEMBLY 


309 


halves of the rear axle housing together at the center. Take 
the inner differential casing apart and draw the axle shaft 
through the housing at the center. After replacing the axle 
shaft be sure that the rear wheels are firmly wedged on at 
the outer end of the axle shaft and the key in proper posi¬ 
tion. When the car has been driven thirty days or so, make 
it a point to remove the hub cap and set up the lock nut to 



Fig. 152. Ford Brake 


overcome any play that might have developed. It is ex¬ 
tremely important that the rear wheels are kept tight, other¬ 
wise the constant rocking back and forth against the key may 
in time cause serious trouble. If the rear axle or wheel is 
sprung by skidding against the curb, or other accident, it is 
false economy to drive the car, as tires, gears and all other 
parts will suffer. If the axle shaft is bent, it can, with proper 
facilities, be straightened, but it is best to replace it. 













VIII 


THE FORD MUFFLER 

Q. Why is the muffler necessary? 

A. The exhaust as it comes from the engine through the 
exhaust pipe would create a constant and distracting noise 
were it not for the muffler. From the comparatively small 
pipe, the exhaust is liberated into the larger chambers of the 
muffler, where the force of the exhaust is lessened by expansion 
and discharged out of the muffler with practically no noise. 
The Ford muffler construction is such that there is very little 
back pressure of the escaping gases, consequently there is 
nothing to be gained by putting a cut-out on the exhaust pipe 
between the engine and the muffler. 

Q. How is the muffler kept in order? 

A. It should be cleaned occasionally. Remove it and take 
off nuts on ends of rods which hold it together, and disas¬ 
semble. 

In reassembling muffler, be careful not to get the holes in 
the inner shells on the same side or end. 

Q. How is the muffler disconnected? 

A. To disconnect the muffler it is not necessary to discon¬ 
nect the exhaust pipe from the motor (although it is a good 
plan and a simple matter, necessitating only unscrewing the 
union). To disconnect muffler from frame, unscrew union at 
formed end of pipe, drop it down so it will clear the frame and 
slip it back off the tube. If the muffler from any cause be¬ 
comes materially damaged it will probably be cheaper to re¬ 
place it with a new one than to attempt to repair it. 


310 


IX 


THE RUNNING GEAR 

Q. What care should the running gear have? 

A. In the first place it at all times should have proper lu¬ 
brication (see chapter on Lubrication). Once in every thirty 
days the front and rear axles should be carefully gone over 
to see that every moving part, such as the bushings in spring 


Spindle Oiler 
Spindle Bolt 
Spindle Body Bushing 
i Spindle Con. Rod Bolt 
jSpindle Con. Rod 
i Spindle Arm 



Clomp Bolt 
Spindle Arm Nut 
Spindle Body Bushing 
Spindle Bolt Nut ^ 


Spoke 

Felt Washoe 
Hub Bolt 
Large Ball Race 
Hub Flange 
Hub 
Spindle 

Grease Chamber 
Ball Bearings 
Adjusting Cons 
Lock Nut 
Mob Cap 
Washer 
Ball Retainer 
Small Ball Race 


Stationary Con* 
Ball Retainer 
Dust Ring 


Fig. 153. Ford. Spindle 

connections, spring hangers, steering knuckles and hub bear¬ 
ings, are thoroughly lubricated, and that all nuts and con¬ 
nections are secured with center pins in place. The spring 
clips, which attach the front spring to the frame, should be 
inspected frequently to see that every thing is in perfect or¬ 
der. 

Q. How is the front axle removed? 

A. Jack up front of car so wheels can be removed. Dis¬ 
connect steering gear arm from the spindle connecting rod, 

311 


















































312 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


disconnect radius rod at ball joint, and remove two cotter pin 
bolts from spring shackle on each side, so detaching front 
spring. 

To disconnect radius rod entirely, take the two bolts out of 
the ball joint and remove lower half of cap. 

Q. In case of accident, how is the front axle straightened? 

A. Should the axle or spindle become bent, extreme care 
must be used to straighten the parts accurately. Do not 
heat the forgings, as this will distemper the steel, but 
straighten them cold. If convenient it would be better to re¬ 
turn such parts to the factory, where they may be properly 
straightened in jigs designed for that purpose. It is very 
essential that the wheels line up properly. The eye is not 
sufficiently accurate to determine whether the parts have been 
properly straightened, and excessive wear of the front tires 
will occur if everything is not in perfect alignment. 

Q. What about the wheels? 

A. The wheels should be jacked up periodically and tested, 
not only for smoothness of running, but for side play as well. 
If in spinning a front wheel a sharp click is heard, now and 
then, and the wheel is momentarily checked, it is probable that 
there is a chipped or split ball in the bearing which should be 
removed, otherwise it may necessitate the removal of the entire 
bearing. A wheel in perfect adjustment should after spin¬ 
ning, come to rest with the tire valve directly below the hub. 
Undue wear of the hub bearings, such as cones, balls and races, 
is usually caused by lack of lubrication and excessive friction, 
due to the adjusting cone being drawn up too tight. It is a 
good plan to clean the bearing frequently and keep the hub 
well filled with grease. 

Q. How are the wheels removed? 

A. Front wheels. Take off hub cap, remove cotter pin 
and unscrew castle nut and spindle washer. The adjustable 
bearing cone can then be taken out and the wheel removed. 
Care should be taken to see that the cones and lock nuts are 
replaced on the same spindle from which they were removed, 
otherwise there is a liability of stripping the threads which are 


THE RUNNING GEAR 


313 


left on the left spindle and right on the opposite as you stand 
facing the car. Back wheels. They should not be removed 
unless absolutely necessary, in which case proceed as above. 
Then with a wheel puller remove the wheel from the tapered 
shaft to which it is locked with a key. In replacing rear 
wheels be sure that nut on axle shaft is as tight as possible 
and cotter pin in place. The hub caps of the rear wheels 
should be removed occasionally and the lock nuts which hold 
the hub in place tightened. If these nuts are allowed to work 
loose, the resulting play on the hub key may eventually twist 
off the axle shaft. 

Q. How does the setting of the front wheels differ from 
that of the rear wheels? 

A. It will be observed that the front wheels are “dished”; 
that is, the spokes are given a slight outward flare to enable 
them to meet side stresses with less rigid resistance, while 
the spokes of the rear wheels are straight. The front wheels 
are also placed at an angle, that is to say, the distance be¬ 
tween the tops of the front wheels is about three inches greater 
than between the bottoms. This is to give perfect steering 
qualities and to save wear on tires when turning corners. The 
front wheels should not, however, “toe-in” at the front, at 
least not more than a quarter of an inch. Lines drawn along 
the outside of the wheels when the latter are straight in- a 
forward position should be parallel. All wheels should al¬ 
ways be kept in proper alignment, otherwise steering will be 
difficult and tire wear will be greatly increased. Adjustment 
can be made by turning the yoke at the left end of the spindle 
connecting rod, to draw the wheels into a parallel position. 

Q. What care do the springs need? 

A. The springs should be lubricated frequently with oil or 
graphite. To do this, pry the leaves apart near the ends and 
insert the lubricant between them. Whenever a car is given a 
general overhauling, the springs should be disassembled and 
the leaves polished with emery cloth, afterwards packing them 
with graphite when reassembling. Rust can be prevented 

{'y • 

from accumulating on the springs by painting them when 


314 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


necessary with a quick drying black paint. You will find that 
these suggestions if carried out will not only improve the 
riding qualities of the car but prolong the life of the parts 
as well. 

Q. Should spring clips be kept tight? 

A. Yes. If the spring clips are allowed to work loose the 
entire strain is put on the tie bolt which extends through the 
center of the spring. This may cause the bolt to be sheared 
off and allow the frame and body to shift to one side. It is 
a good plan to frequently inspect the clips which hold the 
springs to the frame and see that they are kept tight. 

Q. What about the steering apparatus? 

A. It is exceedingly simple and will need little care except, 
of course, proper lubrication. The post gears which are ar¬ 
ranged in the “sun and planet” form are located at the top of 
the post just below the hub of the wheel. By loosening the 
set screw and unscrewing the cap after having removed the 
steering wheel they may readily be inspected and replenished 
with grease. To remove the steering wheel unscrew the nut on 
top of the post and drive the wheel off the shaft with a block 
of wood and hammer. 

Q. How is the steering gear tightened? 

A. Should the steering gear become loose, that is, so that 
a slight movement of the wheel does not produce immediate 
results, it may be tightened in the following manner: Dis¬ 
connect the two halves of the ball sockets which surround the 
ball arm at the lower end of the steering post and file off the 
surface until they fit snugly around the ball. If the ball is 
badly worn it is best to replace it with a new one. Also 
tighten the ball caps at the other end of the steering gear 
connecting rod in the same manner. If the bolts in the steer¬ 
ing spindle arms appear to be loose, the brass bushings should 
be replaced with new ones. Excessive play in the front axle 
may be detected by grasping one of the front wheels by the 
spokes and jerking the front axle back and forth. After the 
car has been in service two or three years excessive play in 
the steering gear may make necessary the renewal of the little 


THE RUNNING GEAR 


315 


pinions, as well as the brass internal gear just underneath the 
steering wheel spider. 

It is also advisable to inspect the front spring hangers oc¬ 
casionally to determine whether or not new bushings are nec¬ 
essary to overcome any excessive vibration. 


X 


THE FORD LUBRICATING SYSTEM 

Q. How does the Ford lubricating system differ from oth¬ 
ers'? 

A. It is simplified,—and there are fewer places to oil. 
Practically all of the parts of the engine and transmission are 
oiled by the Ford splash system, from the one big oil reser¬ 
voir in the crank case. Fig. 154 shows the principal points 
of lubrication, and specifies when replenishment should be 
made, according to mileage. This chart should be studied care¬ 
fully and often. It is a good plan to frequently supply all oil 
cups with the same oil used in the engine (any good light 
grade lubricating oil will answer) and the dope cups with good 
grease. Be sure to see that the commutator is kept freely 
supplied with oil at all times. 

Q. Which is the best way to fill the dope cups'? 

A. When it is advisable to fill the dope cup covers screw 
them down, refill with grease and repeat the operation two 
or three times. Always open oil cups by turning to the right, 
as this keeps tightening them rather than loosening them. 
Occasionally remove front wheels and supply dope to wearing 
surface. A drop of oil now and then in crank handle bearing 
is necessary, also on fan belt pulleys and shaft. The axles, 
drive shaft, and universal joint are well supplied with lubri¬ 
cant when the car leaves the factory, but it is well to examine 
and oil them frequently. 

Q. What kind of oil should be used? 

A. We recommend only light high grade gas engine oil for 
use in the model T motor. A light grade of oil is preferred 
as it will naturally reach the bearings with greater ease and 
consequently less heat will develop on account of friction. The 

316 


o >> 


THE FORD LUBRICATING SYSTEM 


317 


A AA D C AF 





A- Gil Every £00 Miles. C-Grea$e Every £00 Miles. 
B-Oil Every 500 Miles. D-Grease Every 500 Miles. 
E-Grease Every 1000 Miles. 

F-Oil Motor Daily. Keep oil level between 
crank case pet cocks. 

^ G-Grease Every 5000 Miles. A 

Fig. 154. Ford Chassis Oiling Chart 


0>> CD O O CD >> 
























































































































































318 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


oil should, however, have sufficient body so that the pressure 
between the two bearing surfaces will not force the oil out 
and allow the metal to come in actual contact. Heavy and 
inferior oils have a tendency to carbonize quickly, also “gum 
up” the piston rings, valve stems and bearing. In cold 
weather a light grade of oil having a low cold test is absolutely 
essential for the proper lubrication of the car. The nearest 
Ford branch will advise you concerning the lubricating oil 
this company has found best suited for its cars, both for sum¬ 
mer and winter weather. Graphite should not be used as a 
lubricant in the engine or transmission as it will have a ten¬ 
dency to short circuit the magneto. 

Q. How often should the oil be drained from crank cases'? 

A. It is advisable to clean out the crank case by draining 
out the dirty oil when the new car has been driven four or 
five hundred miles; thereafter it will only be necessary to re¬ 
peat this operation about every thousand miles. Remove plug 
underneath the flywheel casing and drain off the oil. Replace 
the plug and pour in a gallon of kerosene oil through the 
breather pipe. Turn the engine over by hand fifteen or twenty 
times so that the splash from the kerosene oil will thoroughly 
clean the engine. Remove crank case plug and drain off 
kerosene oil. In order to get all of the kerosene out of the 
depressions in the crank case the car should be run up a little 
incline, about the height of the ordinary street curbing. Refill 
with fresh oil. 

Q. How often should the commutator be oiled 1 ? 

A. Keeping the commutator well oiled is a matter of far 
greater importance than many drivers believe, and is nec¬ 
essary in order to have a smooth operating engine. Do not be 
afraid to put a little oil into the commutator every other day 
—at least every two hundred miles. Remember that the com¬ 
mutator roller revolves very rapidly, and without sufficient oil 
the parts soon become badly w r om. When in this condition 
perfect contact between the roller and the four contact points 
is impossible, as a result the engine is apt to misfire when run¬ 
ning at a good rate of speed. 


THE FORD LUBRICATING SYSTEM 


319 


Q. What about lubricating the differentials? 

A. Do not make the mistake of putting too much grease in 
the differential housing. The housing should not be more than 
one-third full. .The differential is supplied with the required 
amount of lubricant when the car leaves the factory. The oil 
plug should be removed about every 1000 miles and more 
grease added if necessary. If a fluid is used the level should 
be approximately one and one-half inches below the oil hole. 


t 


XI 


CARE OF TIRES 

Q. How are Ford tires removed? 

A. First, jack up the wheel clear of the road. The valve 
cap should be unscrewed, the lock nut removed and the valve 
stem pushed into the tire until its bead is flush with the rim. 
This done, loosen up the head of the shoe in the clinch of 
the rim by working and pushing with the hands, then in¬ 
sert one of the tire irons or levers under the beads. The 
tire iron should be pushed in just enough to get a good 
hold on the under side of the bead, but not so far as to pinch 
the inner tube between the rim and the tool. A second iron 
should be inserted in the same fashion some seven or eight 
inches from the first, and a third tool the same distance 
from the second. As a cylinder tire must be pried over the 
clinch, three or four levers will come in handy in a case 
of a “ one man job,” and the knee of the driver can be used 
to good advantage to hold down one lever while the other 
two are being manipulated in working the shoe clear of the 
rim. After freeing a length of the loead from the clinch, the 
entire outer edge of the casing may be readily detached with 
the hand, and the damaged inner tube removed and “patched” 
or a spare tube inserted. Always use plenty of soapstone in 
replacing an inner tube. 

Q. How are casings repaired? 

A. Should the casing be cut so there is danger of the inner 
tube being blown through it, a temporary repair can be made 
by cementing a canvas patch on the inside of the casing. Be¬ 
fore applying the patch the part of the casing affected should 
be cleaned with gasoline and when dry, rubber cement applied 

320 


CARE OF TIRES 


321 


to both casing and patch. This will answer as an emergency 
repair, but the casing should be vulcanized at the first op¬ 
portunity. 

To prolong the life of the tire casings, any small cuts in the 
tread should be filled with patching cement and a specially 
prepared u plastic ” sold by tire companies. 

Q. How may tire expense be reduced? 

A. Tire cost constitutes one of the most important items 
in the running expenses of an automobile. To get the most 
service at the least expense, the tire should be inspected fre¬ 
quently and all small cuts or holes properly sealed or re¬ 
paired,— thus preventing dirt and water working in between 
the rubber tread and the fabric, causing blisters or sand boils. 

Tires should never be run partially deflated, as the side 
walls are unduly bent and the fabric is subject to stress, 
which is known as rim cutting. The chances of getting a 
puncture will be greatly reduced by keeping your tires prop¬ 
erly inflated, as a hard tire exposes much less surface to 
the road than a soft tire, and also deflects sharp objects 
that would penetrate a soft tire. 

Running a flat tire, even for a short distance, is sure to be 
costly. Better run on the rim, very slowly and carefully, 
rather than on a flat tire. 

Remember that fast driving and skidding shorten the life of 
the tires. Avoid locking the wheels with the brakes,— no tire 
will stand the strain of being dragged over the pavement 
in this fashion. 

Avoid running in street car tracks, in ruts, or bumping the 
side of the tire against the curbing. 

The wheel rims should be painted each season and kept 
free from rust. 

When a car is idle for any appreciable length of time, it 
should be jacked up to take the load otf the tires. If the 
car is laid up for many months, it is best to remove the tires, 
and wrap up the outer casings and inner tubes separately, 
and store them in a dark room not exposed to extreme tem¬ 
perature. Remove oil or grease from the tires with gasoline. 


322 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


Remember that heat, light and oil are three natural enemies 
to rubber. 

Q. How is a puncture in the inner tube repaired? 

A. After locating the puncture, carefully clean the rubber 
around the leak with benzine or gasoline. Then rough the 
surface with sand paper from your tire repair kit to give 
a hold for the cement. Apply the cement to both patch and 
tube, allowing it to dry for about five minutes, repeating 
the application twice with like intervals between for drying. 
When the cement is dry and sticky press the patch against 
the tube firmly and thoroughly to remove all air bubbles 
beneath it and insure proper adherence to the surface. Then 
spread some soapstone or talc powder over the repair so as 
to prevent the tube sticking to the casing. Before the tube 
is put back into the casing plenty of talc powder should be 
sprinkled into the latter. A cement patch is not usually per¬ 
manent and the tube should be vulcanized as soon as pos¬ 
sible. In replacing the tire on the rim be very careful not to 
pinch the tube. 


XII 


POINTS ON MAINTENANCE 

Q. What is the proper way to wash the car*? 

A. Always use cold or lukewarm water,— never hot water. 
If a hose is used, do not turn on the water at full force, as 
this drives the dirt into the varnish and injures the finish. 
After the surplus mud and grime have been washed off, take 
a sponge and clean the body and running gear with a tepid 
solution of water and ivory or linseed oil soap. Then rinse 
off with cold water; then rub dry and polish the body with 
a chamois skin. A body or furniture polish of good quality 
may be used to add luster to the car. Grease on the running 
gear may be removed with a gasoline soaked sponge or rag. 
The nickeled parts may be polished with any good metal 
polish. 

Q. What care does the top need? 

A. When putting the top down be careful in folding to 
see that the fabric is not pinched between the bow spacers, 
as they will chafe a hole through the top very quickly. Al¬ 
ways slip the hood over the top when folded to keep out dust 
and dirt. Applying a good top dressing will greatly improve 
the appearance of an old top. 

Q. What should be done when the car is stored? 

A. Drain the water from the radiator, and then put in 
about a quart of denatured alcohol to prevent freezing of 
any water that may possibly remain. Remove cylinder head 
and clean out any carbon deposits in combustion chamber. 
Draw off all the gasoline. Drain the dirty oil from the crank 
case and cleanse the engine with kerosene as directed above. 
Refill the crank case with fresh oil and revolve the engine 
enough to cover the different parts with oil. Remove the 

323 


324 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


tires and store them away. Wash up the car, and if possible 
cover the body with a sheet of muslin to protect the finish. 

Q. What attention do the electric headlights require? 

A. Very little. When the cars leave our factory the 
lamps are properly focussed and unless the bulb burns out 
there should be no occasion for removing the door, as there 
is nothing to get out of order. Should the door be removed 
for any reason care should be exercised not to touch the 
silver-plated reflector or the bulb with anything but a soft, 
clean rag, preferably flannel. To focus the lamps turn the 
adjusting screw in the back of the lamp in either direction 
until the desired focus is attained. The bulbs we are furnish¬ 
ing in electric head lamps are 8 volts, 2 amperes, and best 
results will be obtained by securing lamps of this voltage and 
amperage when replacement is necessary. 


XIII 


THE FORD MODEL T ONE TON TRUCK 

Q. Do the instructions relative to the car apply to the 
truck? 

A. The answers pertaining to the car are applicable to the 
truck. 

Q. How is the rear axle removed? 

A. Jack up the truck, place supports under rear axle 
housings, and remove the rear wheels. Take out the four 
bolts connecting the universal ball cap to the transmission case 
and cover. Disconnect brake rods. Remove nuts holding 
spring perches to rear axle housing flanges. Raise frame by 
placing a long iron bar or gas pipe under the frame just 
in front of rear spring, one end resting on a substantial sup¬ 
port of the proper height. Two workmen at the other end 
of the bar can raise the frame and place the end of the bar 
on another support. The rear axle assembly can then be 
easily removed. 

Q. How is the universal joint disconnected from the drive 
shaft? 

A. Remove two plugs from top and bottom of ball cast¬ 
ing and turn shaft until pin comes opposite hole, drive out 
pin and the joint can be pulled or forced away from the 
shaft and out of the housing. 

Q. How are the rear axle and differential disassembled? 

A. With the universal joint disconnected, remove the bolt 
in front end of radius rods and the cap screws which hold the 
drive shaft tube to the rear axle housing. Then remove the 
rear axle housing cap; also the bolts which hold the two 
halves of the differential housing together. With the differ¬ 
ential exposed to view, the manner of disassembling it will be 

325 


326 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


apparent. Care must be exercised to get every part back 
in its correct position when reassembling, being sure to use 
new paper liners. 

Q. How is the worm removed? 

A. To remove the worm, drive out the pins which hold the 
coupling to the worm and drive shaft. Then remove the felt 
washer, roller bearing sleeve, and roller bearing by slipping 
them over the coupling. Drive the coupling off from the drive 
shaft and then force the worm from the coupling. Remov¬ 
ing the worm nut will permit the removal of the retaining 
washer, thrust bearing and rear worm roller bearing. In re¬ 
assembling be sure that the pin which holds the retaining 
washer stationary is in place. 

Q. How is the rear axle shaft removed? 

A. Remove the rear axle assembly as directed above. Dis¬ 
connect brake rods and radius rods at rear axle housing 
flange; also remove nuts holding spring perches to flanges. 
Take out the cap screws holding the drive shaft tube to the 
rear axle housing and remove the rear axle housing cap and 
the bolts which hold the two halves of the differential hous¬ 
ing together, then pull or force the housing from the shafts 
and disassemble differential. After replacing the axle shaft 
be sure that the rear wheels are firmly wedged on at the 
outer end of the axle shaft and the key in proper position. 
When the truck has been driven thirty days or so make it 
a point to remove the hub cap and set up the lock nut to over¬ 
come any play that might have developed. It is extremely 
important that the rear wheels are kept tight, otherwise the 
constant rocking back and forth against the keyway may in 
time cause serious trouble. 

Q. How is the differential gear removed from the shaft? 

A. The differential gear is fastened to the inner end of 
the rear axle shaft by means of splines, and is held in posi¬ 
tion by a ring which is in two halves and fits in a groove 
in the rear axle shaft. To remove the gear, force it down on 
the shaft, that is, away from the end to which it is fastened, 
drive out the two halves of the ring in groove in shaft with 


THE FORD MODEL T ONE TON TRUCK 327 


screw driver or chisel, and force the gear off the end of the 
shaft. 

Q. What about lubricating the rear axle? 

A. Extreme care must be used in lubricating the differ¬ 
ential. An A-l heavy fluid or semi-fluid oil, such as Mobiloil 
C or Whittemore’s Worm Gear Protective, should be used 
and cared at a level with the upper oil plug. The differ¬ 
ential is supplied with the required amount of lubricant when 
the ear leaves the factory and the supply should be main¬ 
tained by replenishments as required. After running the 
truck about 500 miles, the oil should be drained off by remov¬ 
ing the lower oil plug, and the differential filled with fresh 
lubricant. This operation should be repeated at approxi¬ 
mately 1000 miles, and after that whenever necessary. The 
rear axle outer roller bearings are lubricated by means of 
dope cups. These cups should be kept filled with a good 
grade of grease and given a full turn every 100 miles. Be¬ 
fore putting the truck back into service after the rear axle 
has been taken out fill the differential with oil, jack up the 
axle and run it for five or ten minutes to insure proper lubri¬ 
cant of all bearings. 


XIV 


THE F. A. STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEM INSTALLED 

ON SEDANS AND COUPES 

Q. Of what does the starting and lighting system con¬ 
sist? 

A. The starting and lighting system is of the two unit type 
and consists of the starting motor, generator, storage battery, 
charging indicator, and lights, together with the necessary 
wdring and connections. 

Q. Where is the starter located? 

A. The starting motor is mounted on the left hand side of 
the engine and bolted to the transmission cover. When in 
operation the pinion on the Bendix drive shaft engages with 
the teeth on the flywheel. 

Q. What must be done before starting the engine? 

A. The spark and the throttle levers should be placed in 
the same position on the quadrant as when cranking by hand, 
and the ignition switch turned on. Current from either bat¬ 
tery or magneto may be used for ignition. When starting, 
especially when the engine is cold the ignition switch should 
be turned to battery. As soon as the engine is warmed up, 
turn switch back to magneto. The magneto was designed to 
furnish ignition for the Model T engine and better results will 
be obtained by operating in this w r ay. Special attention must 
be paid to the position of the spark lever as a too advanced 
spark will cause serious backfiring which in turn will bend 
or break the shaft in the starter. The starting motor is 
operated by a push button, conveniently located in the floor 
of the car at the driver’s feet. With the spark and throttle 
levers in the proper position, and the ignition switch turned 
on, press on the push button with the foot. This closes 

328 


F. A. STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEM 329 


the circuit between the battery and the starting motor, caus¬ 
ing the pinion of the Bendix drive shaft to engage with the 
teeth on the flywheel, thus turning over the crank shaft. 
When the engine is cold it may be necessary to prime it by 
pulling out the carburetor priming rod, which is located on 
the instrument board. In order to avoid flooding the engine 
with an over rich mixture of gas, the priming rod should 
only be held out for a few seconds at a time. 

Q. What if the engine fails to start? 

A. If the starting motor is turning the crank shaft over 
and the engine fails to start, the trouble is not in the starting 
system. In this event, release the button at once so as not 
to unnecessarily discharge the battery and inspect the car¬ 
buretor and ignition system to determine the trouble. 

Q. What if the starting motor fails to act? 

A. If the starting motor fails to act, after pushing the 
button, first inspect the terminal on the starting motor, the 
two terminals on the battery and the two terminals on start¬ 
ing switch, making sure all the connections are tight; then 
examine the wiring for a break in the insulation that would 
cause a short circuit. If the wiring and connections are 
0. K. and the starting motor fails to act, test the battery 
with the hydrometer. If the hydrometer reading is less than 
1.225 the trouble is no doubt due to a weak or discharged 
battery. 

Q. How is the generator operated? 

A. The generator is mounted on the right hand side of the 
engine and bolted to the cylinder front end cover. It is 
operated by the pinion on the armature shaft engaging with 
the large time gear. The charging rate of the generator is 
set so as to cut in at engine speeds corresponding to ten 
miles per hour in high speed and reaches a maximum charging 
rate at twenty miles per hour. At higher speeds the charge 
will taper off, which is a settled characteristic of battery 
charging. This operation of cutting in and cutting out at 
suitable speeds is accomplished by the cut-out, which is 
mounted on the dash. This cut-out is set properly at the 


330 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


factory and should not under any circumstances be tampered 
with. 

Q. What about oiling? 

A. The starting motor is lubricated by the Ford splash 
system, the same as the engine and the transmission. The 
generator is lubricated by a splash of oil from the time gears. 
In addition an oil cup is located at the end of the generator 
housing and a few drops of oil should be applied occasionally. 

Q. What should be done when repairing the ignition? 

A. The introduction of a battery current into the magneto 
will discharge the magnets and whenever repairing the igni¬ 
tion system or tampering with the wiring in any way, do not 
fail to disconnect the positive wire from the battery. The end 
of this wire should be wound with tape to prevent its coming 
in contact with the ignition system or metal parts of the car. 

Q. How does the charging indicator work? 

A. The charging indicator is located on the instrument 
board. This indicator registers “ charge ” when the generator 
is charging the battery and “ discharge ” when the lights are 
burning and the engine not running above ten miles per hour. 
At an engine speed of 15 miles per hour or more the indicator 
should show a reading of from 10 to 12 even with the lights 
burning. If the engine is running above 15 miles per hour 
and the indicator does not show “charge,” first inspect the 
terminal posts on the indicator, making sure that the connec¬ 
tions are tight, then disconnect the wire from the terminal 
on generator, and with the engine running at a moderate 
speed, take a pair of pliers or a screw driver and short cir¬ 
cuit the terminal stud on the generator to the generator hous¬ 
ing. If the generator is 0. K., a good live spark will be noted. 
(Do not run the engine any longer than is necessary with the 
terminal wire disconnected.) Next inspect the wiring from 
the generator through the charging indicator to the battery 
for a break in the insulation that would result in a short 
circuit. 

Q. How are the lights operated? 

A. The lighting system consists of two 2-bulb headlights 


F. A. STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEM 331 


and a tail light operated by a combination lighting and igni¬ 
tion switch located on the instrument board. The large bulbs 
are of 6-8 candle-power type. The small bulbs of 6-8 
volt two candle-power type. The small bulb is also used in 
the tail light. All of the lamps are connected in parallel so 
that the burning out or removal of any one of them will 
not effect the other. Current for the lamps is supplied by 
the battery. Do not connect the lights with the magneto as 
it will result in burning out the bulbs and might discharge 
the magnets. 

Q. What about repairing starter and generator? 

A. If either the starter or generator fails to give proper 
service, the owner should at once consult an authorized Ford 
dealer. If the trouble is not found in the wiring, connec¬ 
tions, etc., as outlined, the dealer will remove the starter 
or generator, or both if necessary, and return them intact 
to the nearest branch for repair or replacement. Dealers or 
owners should not attempt to repair or tamper in any way 
with the mechanism of the starter and generator. 

Q. How is the starter removed? 

A. When removing the starter to replace transmission 
bands, or for any other reason, first remove the engine pan 
and the left hand side of the engine and with a screw driver 
remove the four small screws holding the shaft cover to the 
transmission cover. Upon removing cover and gasket, turn 
the Bendix drive shaft around so that the set screw on the 
end of the shaft is in the upward position. Immediately 
under the set screw is placed a lock washer, designed with 
lips or extensions opposite each other on the outside diameter. 
One of these is turned against the collar and the other is 
turned up against the side of the screw head. Bend back 
the lip which has been forced against the screw and remove 
the set screw. As the lock washer will no doubt be broken 
or weakened in removing the starter, a new one must be 
used in replacing it. These washers may be obtained from 
the nearest branch. Next, pull the Bendix assembly out of 
the housing, being careful that the small key is not misplaced 



332 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


or lost. Remove the four screws which hold the starter 
housing to the transmission cover and pull out the starter, 
taking same down through the chassis,— this is why it was 
necessary to remove the engine pan. Extreme care should 
be used in removing the Bendix drive and other parts that 
none are misplaced nor lost and that they are replaced in their 
former positions. In replacing the starter, be sure that the 
terminal connection is placed at the top. If the car is to 
be operated with the starter removed, be sure to put the 
transmission cover plates in position. These plates may also 
be obtained from the nearest branch. 

Q. How is the generator removed*? 

A. If it is found necessary to remove the generator, first 
take out the three cap screws holding it to the front end 
cover and by placing the point of a screw driver between 
the generator and front end cover; the generator may be 
forced off the engine assembly. Always start at the top 
of the generator and force it backward and downward at the 
same time. Plates may be obtained from the nearest branch 
to place over the time gear if the car is to be operated 
with the generator removed. 

Q. Can the engine be run with the generator disconnected 
from the battery? 

A. If for any reason it is run with the generator discon¬ 
nected from the battery, as on a block test, or when battery 
has been removed for repair or recharging, be sure that the 
generator is grounded to the engine by running a wire 
from the terminal on generator to one of the valve cover 
stud nuts. A piece of wire Me" or more in diameter may 
be used for this purpose. Be sure that the connections 
at both ends of the wire are tight. Failure to do this 
when running the engine with the generator disconnected 
from the battery will result in serious injury to the gener¬ 
ator. 

Q. What about the care of the battery, repairing of re¬ 
charging ? 

A. The Ford Starting System uses a 6-volt 13-plate 


F. A. STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEM 333 


“ Exide ” battery, type 3-XC-13-1. The care of the battery 
in service is summed up in the following 1 rules: 

1. Add nothing but pure water to the cells and do it often 
enough to keep the plates covered at all times. Distilled 
water, melted artificial ice or rain water collected in clean 
receptacles is recommended. In cold weather add water only 
just before running the engine so that the charging may mix 
the water and the electrolyte and freezing of the water be 
avoided. 

2. Take frequent hydrometer readings to make sure that the 
generator is keeping the battery charged. To take reading 
remove filler cap of cell, insert end of hydrometer syringe in 
filler opening, squeeze bulb, and release, drawing up enough 
liquid to float hydrometer bulb free in the liquid. The read¬ 
ing of the scale at the surface of the liquid when hydrometer 
is floating in the specific gravity (density) of the electrolyte. 
A fully charged battery will show a reading of 1.275 to 1.300. 
A battery half charged will show a reading of 1.225 tol.250. 
A completely discharged battery will show a reading of 1,200 
or less. When taking hydrometer readings remove the filler 
cap from only one cell at a time and be sure to return 
electrolyte to the cell from which it was taken. Then replace 
and tighten the filler cap. Hydrometer tests taken im- 

• mediately after filling with water and before water has be¬ 
come thoroughly mixed with the electrolyte will not show 
the true condition of the battery. 

3. If hydrometer reading shows battery less than half 
charged it should be taken to the nearest Exide Battery Serv¬ 
ice Station for recharging. Continued operation in a less 
than half charged condition is injurious to the battery, just 
as running in a soft or deflated condition is injurious to the 
tires. 

4. Keep the filler caps in place and screwed tight,— a half 
turn tightens them. Keep battery connections tight and 
clean. A coating of heavy oil or vaseline will protect the 
connectors from corrosion. Keep battery firmly secured in 
place. If hold-downs are loose battery will shift about in 


334 


THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE 


compartment and result in loose connections, broken cells or 
other trouble. 

5. Exide Battery Stations are maintained in principal cities 
and towns throughout the country to assist you to obtain good 
service from your battery. Do not entrust your battery to 
the care of a novice. 

Q. What about battery guarantee? 

A. The Exide batteries are guaranteed by the manufac¬ 
turers (The Electric Storage Battery Company, Philadelphia, 
Pa.) to be free from defects in material and workmanship. 

At any time within three months from date of delivery to 
the purchaser any battery which may prove to be defective or 
incapable, when fully charged, of giving its rated capacity, 
will be repaired or replaced free of expense upon receipt, 
transportation charges prepaid, at any Exide Battery Depot 
or authorized Exide Battery Service Station. This guarantee 
does not cover the free charging of batteries nor the making 
good of damage resulting from continued lack of filling the 
cells from time to time with pure water. No claims on ac¬ 
count of alleged defects can be allowed unless made within 
three months of date of delivery of battery to purchaser, and 
the right is reserved to refuse to consider claims in the case 
of batteries opened by other than authorized Exide Battery 
Service Stations. 

Purchasers of cars equipped with the “ Exide ” batteries 
are earnestly urged to cooperate with the battery manufac¬ 
turers to taking their cars, as promptly as possible after re¬ 
ceipt, by the nearest Exide Battery Service Station in order 
that the battery may be tested and its condition and installa¬ 
tion checked. No charge is made for this inspection. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Accumulator . 99 

Alignment . 229 

Alternating current .... 96 

Ammeter . 99 

Ampere . 95 

Atwater Kent ignition 

systems . 126 

Automobile arrangement 

of parts . 245 

painting . 262 

troubles . 264 

Axles . 212 

dead, type . 212 

front . 214 

full-floating . 213 

live, type . 212 

semi-floating .212 

Battery, storage . 99 

Bearings, types of.236 


Bijur starter mechanism 151 
Body, care and washing. 253 
Borg and Beck clutch .. 192 
Bosch Magneto, opera¬ 


tion of .105 

cutting out ignition 110 
safety spark gap .. 109 

timing of. 106 

Brakes, operation of ... 218 

care of . 221 

equalizer . 220 

Breaker box and distrib¬ 
utor head assem¬ 
bly, N.E.117 


PAGE 


Cam shaft . 18 

Cam shaft drive. 19 

Car, arrangement and 

parts, cleaning ... 243 
care, cleaning and 

washing . 253 

Carburetion . 46 

Carburetor, types, op¬ 
eration . 46 

adjustments of. 56 

kerosene, principle of 

operation . 76 

adjustment . 78 

Charging rate, adjust¬ 
ment . 165 

Choking coil . 97 

Circuit breaker .100 

Clutch, construction of . 189 

cone type. 191 

multiple disc type ... 192 
leathers and patterns. 196 
Coil, non-vibrating .... 100 

Commutator . 97 

Condenser . 97 

Contact breaker .100 

Cooling system, neces¬ 
sity, types and 

care . 82 

Crank shaft, counterbal¬ 
anced . 17 

four-throw plain .. 17 

Current, high tension, 

low tension . 95 

Cylinder head . 14 










































336 


INDEX 


PAGE 


Delco, electrical system . 96 

Differential gears. 207 

Direct current.. 96 

Disc clutch, cleaning ... 195 
Distributor . 100 

Electric starter and light 

equipment .147 

Electrical, equipment .. 154 

systems . 153 

tuning hints. 259 

Electrolyte . 99 

Engine, 4-cycle type, op¬ 
eration of. 29 

assembly of. 36 

care and cleaning of . 253 
construction and parts 12 
Evaporation . 84 


Exact magneto timing .. 108 

Filling vacuum tank ... 94 

Flywheel, types, care of. 20 
Ford bar, operation and 


care of . 269 

cooling system .287 

engine, operation and 

care of . 277 

maintenance .280 

valve arrangement . 279 
valve grinding .... 280 
valve timing ...... 279 

gasoline system. 290 

ignition system.295 

lubrication system ... 316 
maintenance points .. 323 

muffler . 310 

one-ton truck. 325 

rear axle assembly ... 307 

running gear. 311 

starting and lighting 

system . 328 


PAGE 


Ford car, tire care.320 

transmission system .. 301 
Fuse, construction, use of 97 

Gasoline engine construc¬ 
tion . 12 

parts assembly .... 36 

Gear, shifts . 200 

box arrangement .... 201 

Generator . 147 

Greases. 40 

Heated manifolds. 79 

High speed . 189 

High tension current ... 95 

Hydrometer syringe .... 99 

Induction coil . 96 

Ignition coil, N.E. type 117 
Ignition distributor, N.E. 

type . 116 

Kick switch arrange¬ 
ment . 137 

coil . 137 

Lamp controllers . 159 

Lens, cleaning of. 254 

Lubrication, of spring 

leaves . 224 

systems . 39 

Magneto, parts, opera¬ 
tion of . 101 

timing of . 113 

washing, repair.Ill 

Main bearings .. 17 

Manifold, action of .... 80 

Mechanical alignment .. 230 
Mufflers, design, care of 86 
cleaning . 87 












































INDEX 


337 


PAGE 


Multiple cylinders . 12 

North East Automatic 

spark advance ... 121 

breaker cam. 120 

breaker contacts ... 119 
ignition system .... 114 
starter system.161 

Ohm . 95 

Oils, quality, grade of . 40 

Oil reservoir . 19 

One unit, electrical sys¬ 
tem . 148 

Overhauling car. 247 

Overheating . 83 

Operation of starter ..„ 156 


Philbrin ignition system 141 

Pistons . 15 

Piston rings. 15 

rod bearings . 16 

rods . 16 

wrist pins . 15 

Plunger pump oiling sys¬ 
tem, operation of .. 42 

Power stroke. 31 

lapping . 32 

Poppet valve, construc¬ 
tion . 23 

adjustment . 23 

operation . 23 

Radiator, cleaning. 83 

freezing . 84 

solutions . 84 

repairs . 84 

Regulation of generator 100 

Repair equipment . 25 

Rug cleaning. 254 


PAGE 

Running gear, washing of 253 


Schebler - carburetor, 
model R, adjust¬ 
ment of . 63 

Ford “A,” adjust¬ 
ment of . 74 

Ford “A,” operation 

of . 73 

Semi-floating axle, opera¬ 
tion of . 212 

Spark plugs, construc¬ 
tion of . 186 

care of . 186 

Splash oiling system ... 40 

care of . 41 

cleaning of . 41 

Spring, care, tests .225 

types, care of.226 

Starter-Generator, opera¬ 
tion of . 163 

Starting motor, operation 

of. 149 

Steering gear, types ... 232 

adjustment of.233 

care of . 235 


Stewart carburetor, op¬ 
eration, care of 
and maintenance 65 
Storage battery, opera¬ 


tion of . 180 

charging . 182 

freezing . 185 

maintenance . 182 

Strainer for gasoline ... 93 

Stroke . 31 

Stromberg carburetor, 

model M. 47 

model L . 58 

Sunderman carburetor, 

action of ....... 60 

















































338 INDEX 


PAGE 

Switches. 100 

Three unit, electrical sys¬ 
tem . 148 

Tire, build, quality. 25G 

chains . 257 

rim care. 254 

Top, care of . 254 

Transmissions . 198 

gear shifts. 200 

box arrangement .. 201 

care of. 202 

Tube, care. 258 

repairing . 258 

Two unit, electrical sys¬ 
tem . 148 

Universal joints . 204 

Upholstering .254 

Vacuum systems... 89 


cleaning strainer .. 93 


PAGE 


Vacuum systems, opera¬ 
tion of. 90 

troubles . 93 

Valve, types, arrange¬ 
ment of . 21 

grinding . 25 

setting . 24 

sleeve type..... 26 

setting of. 27 

timing marks. 25 

Voltage . 95 

Voltaic cells . 99 

Water cooling. 82 

Water vents. 16 

Wheels, lining up. 229 

Windshield, cleaning and 

care... 99 

Wiring . 114 

Wrapping springs.224 

Wrist pins. 15 

bushings . 15 


(l) 






















































































